LCC 8 London County Council ANNUAL REPORT OF THE MEDICAL OFFICER OF HEALTH OK THE ADMINISTRATIVE COUNTY OF LONDON. 1899. (Ordered by the Council to be printed.) Printed for the london county council by jas. truscott and son. And may be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from P. S. KING AND SON, 2 and 4, Great Smith-street, Victoria-strut, Westminster, S.W., Aqents for the tale of the Publications of the London County Council. [3819 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Part I.— paee Population 1 Marriages 1 Births 1 Deaths 3 London mortality in the nine years 1891-9, compared, with the decennium 1881-90 5 Infant mortality 12 Deaths from several classes of disease 13 Principal zymotic diseases 15 Smallpox and vaccination 16 London vaccination returns 17 Measles 18 Scarlet fever 21 Scarlet fever and elementary schools 23 Proportion of cases and deaths in hospitals 24 Age and sex distribution 24 Diphtheria 25 Bacteriological examination 29 Use of anti-toxic serum 30 Diphtheria and elementary schools 30 Proportion of eases and deaths in hospitals 33 Age and sex distribution 33 Whooping cough 34 Typhus 35 Enteric fever 38 Age and sex distribution 41 Diarrhœa 42 Cholera 43 Erysipelas 43 Puerperal fever 44 Influenza, bronchitis and pneumonia 45 Phthisis 46 Cancer 49 Glanders 50 Bubonic plague 50 Statistics relating to notified diseases in London sanitary districts, as constituted by the London Government Act, 1899 51 Meteorology 51 Part II.— Dairies, cowsheds and nilkshops 51 Tubercular disease of the udder of the cow 51 Offensive businesses 54 Complaints to the London County Council 54 Nuisances 54 Trade nuisances 54 Smoke nuisance 54 Nuisance from stable manure 55 Removal of offensive matter 56 Removal of house refuse 57 Deposit and disposal of refuse 58 Flooding from sewers 59 Nuisance from sewer ventilators 59 Combined drains 60 Deposit of plans of drainage 60 The river Lea 60 Housing of the working classes 60 Schemes undertaken by the Council under Part I. of the Act, or by the Metropolitan Board of Works under the Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings Act, 1875 62 Schemes undertaken by the Council under Part II. of the Act 63 Schemes undertaken by district authorities under Part II. of the Act to the cost of which the Council contributed 64 Sites acquired under Part III. of the Act 64 Size of rooms 64 Proceedings in respect of houses represented as unfit for human habitation 65 Small Dwellings Acquisition Act, 1899 66 The regulation of houses let in lodgings 67 Common lodging-houses 71 Customs and Inland Revenue Acts, 1890 and 1891 76 Underground rooms 76 Factories and workshops 77 Bakehouses 77 Places where food is prepared for sale 77 Inspection of food 78 Disinfection 80 Provision of shelter during disinfection 80 The Cleansing of Persons Act 81 Mortuaries 81 page Water supply 81 Constant water supply 83 The London Equalization of Rates Act, 1894 83 Special inquiries undertaken by the Public Health Department in 1899 84 Sanitary administration of Kensington 84 Sanitary condition of cemeteries and burial grounds 84 The London Government Act, 1899 84 Medical officers of health of London sanitary districts in 1899 86 Appendices— I.—Statistics relating to notifiable disease in the sanitary areas of London (as constituted bv the London Government Act, 1899) in the nine years 1891-99. II.— Report on the sanitary condition and administration of Kensington. III.—Report on the sanitary condition of cemeteries and burial-grounds in and near London. LIST OF DIAGRAMS. facing page. Diagram I.—Marriages, 1851-99 1 ,, II—Births, 1851-99 1 „ III.—Deaths, 1841-99 3 ,, IV.—Smallpox, 1841-99 16 ,, V.—Measles, 1841-99 18 ,, VI.—Scarlet fever, 1859-99 21 „ VII.—Scarlet fever; admissions to and deaths in hospitals of the Metropolitan Asylums Board, per cent. of the total cases and deaths in London 21 „ VIII.—Scarlet fever; weekly notifications at certain age periods, 1899 24 „ IX.—Diphtheria and croup, 1859-99 25 ,, X.—Diphtheria; admissions to and deaths in hospitals of the Metropolitan Asylums Board, per cent. of total cases and deaths in London 25 „ XI.—Diphtheria; weekly notifications at certain age periods, 1899 31 „ XII.—Whooping cough, 1841-99 34 „ XIII.—Typhus, 1869-99 36 „ XIV.—Enteric fever, 1869-99 38 „ XV.—Diarrhœ in relation to mean temperature (summer quarter), 1841-99 38 „ XVI.—Enteric fever; weekly notifications, 1899, and mean weekly notifications, 1890-99 41 „ XVII.—Mortality from "all causes," from "phthisis," and from "all causes excluding phthisis," at certain age-periods in relation to "overcrowding " 47 „ XVIII.—Scarlet fever; monthly notifications and case mortality, 1891-99 50 „ XIX.—Diphtheria; monthly notifications and case mortality, 1891-99 50 „ XX.—Enteric fever; monthly notifications and case mortality, 1891-99 50 Diagram 1. —Marriages.— Mean. MarruiCfe rait. JS51- 99. 18.9 per 1.000 y Diagram II. —Births.— Mean Birth - raie- 185t~ 99. 33 5 per 1.000 Adminisrative County of london. REPORT OF THE MEDICAL OFFICER OF HEALTH. 1899. PART I. Population. The population of the Administrative County of London, estimated to the middle of 1899, was 4.568.689. The estimated population of each of the forty-three sanitary districts comprised in the administrative county is shown in the following table— Sanitary district. Estimated population, 1899. Sanitary district. Estimated population, 1899. Sanitary district. Estimated population 1899. Paddington 128,794 St. Giles 37,196 St. George, Southwark 60,536 Kensington 172,899 St. Martin-in-the-Fields 12,142 Newington 124,166 Hammersmith 108,785 Strand 23,016 St. Olave, Southwark 11,098 Fulham 130,720 Holborn 29,621 Bermondsey 85,835 Chelsea 96,721 Clerkenwell 66,068 Rotherhithe 41,050 St. George, Hanoversquare 80,876 St. Luke 40,868 Lambeth 308,108 City of London 27,986 Battersea 174,996 Westminster 52,117 Shoreditch 121,071 Wandsworth ... 209,655 St. James, Westminster 21,827 Bethnal-green 128,938 Camberwell 264,817 Marylebone 140,139 Whitechapel 81,391 Greenwich 182,513 Hampstead 80,252 St. George-in-the-East 48,560 Lee 40,219 St. Pancras 244,548 Limehouse 58,807 Lewisham 112,964 Islington 34S,085 Mile-end Old-town 113,161 Woolwich 41,542 Stoke Newington 35,187 Poplar 170,606 Plumstead 64,031 Hackney 222,571 St. Saviour, Southwark 24,207 The population of London was enumerated on the 29th March, 1896, in accordance with the provisions of the Equalisation of Rates Act, 1894. A statement of the increase or decrease of population of each sanitary district between the two census years 1891 and 1896 will be found in my annual report for the year 1895. Marriages. The number of marriages in the Registration County of London in 1899 (52 weeks) was 41,853, giving an annual rate of persons married of 18.4 per 1,000 living. The marriage rate in successive periods has been as follows— 1851-60 20.6 1861-70 20.3 1871-80 19.0 1881-90 17.5 1891 17.7 1892 17.4 1893 17.2 1894 17.0 1895 17.2 1896 18.0 1897 18.5 1898 18.7 1899 18.4 The accompanying diagram (I.) shows the marriage rate in each year since 1850 in relation to the mean marriage rate of the period 1851-99. In previous years I have shewn the number of marriages of persons of each sex under 21 years of age per cent. of total marriages. It has been impossible to obtain the figures for the year 1899 in time for this report. Births. The number of births registered in the Administrative County of London in 1899 (52 weeks) was 133,585, giving a birth rate of 29'3 per 1,000 living per annum; this is the lowest birth rate on record in London. 2 The birth rate in successive periods has been as follows— 1851.60 33.6 1861.70 35.4. 1871.80 35.4 1881.90 33.2 1891 31.8* 1892 30.9* 1893 31.0* 1894 30.1* 1895 30.6* 1896 30.2* 1897 30.0* 1898 29.4* 1899 29.3* The corresponding figures for England and Wales are as follows— 1851-60 34.2 1861-70 35.2 1871-80 35.5 1881-90 32.5 1891 31.4 1892 30.5 1893 30.8 1894 29.6 1895 30.4 1896 29.7 1897 29.7 1898 29.4 The accompanying diagram (II.) shows the London birth rate in each year since 1850 in relation to the mean birth rate of the period 1851-99. During the year the eastern group of districts had the highest birth rate (36.2) and the western the lowest (24.6), the northern, central, and southern groups having birth rates, of 27.2, 28'6, and 30.0 per 1,000 living respectively. As in the preceding year the district having the highest birth rate was St. Luke (44.4), and the district having the lowest birth rate was St. Martinin-the-Fields (12.2). The following table shows the birth rate in each district in 1899 per 1,000 persons living and per 100 females aged 15-45 years— Sanitary district. Births. Birth rate per 1,000 living. Births per 100 females aged 15-45. Paddington 2,941 22.9 6.9 Kensington 3,590 20.8 5.9 Hammersmith 3,061 28.2 10.5 Fulham 4,574 35.1 13.5 †Chelsea 2,381 24.7 9.1 St. George, Hanover-square 1,348 16.7 4.8 Westminster 1,115 21.5 8.1 St. James 437 20.1 6.9 †Marylebone 3,987 28.5 9.1 Hampstead 1,577 19.7 5.4 Pancras 6,621 27.1 10.5 Islington 9,658 27.8 10.6 Stoke Newington 799 22.8 7.5 Hackney 6,453 29.1 10.9 †St. Giles 1 132 30.5 10.8 St. Martin-in-the-Fields 148 12.2 4.2 Strand 472 20.6 7.5 Holborn 721 24.4 9.7 Clerkenwell 2,050 31.1 12.8 †St. Luke 1,811 44.4 18.4 London, City of 416 14.9 5.6 Shoreditch 4,132 34.2 14.4 Bethnal-green 4,753 37.0 16.0 Whitechapel 3,000 37.0 15.8 St. George-in-the-East 2,068 42.7 18.8 Limehouse 1,933 33.0 14.7 †Mile-end Old-town 4,250 37.7 15.9 Poplar 5,918 34.8 15.9 St. Saviour, Southwark 694 28.7 13.0 St. George, Southwark 2,128 35.2 14.8 Newington 4,178 33.7 14.3 St. Olave 361 32.6 13.9 Bermondsey 3,063 35.8 15.9 Rotherhithe 1,266 30.9 14.5 †Lambeth 9,433 30.7 11.8 Battersea 5,179 29.7 12.5 Wandsworth 5,542 26.5 9.1 Camberwell 7,444 28.2 11.3 Greenwich 5,682 31.2 13.0 Lewisham 3,062 27.2 9.2 Woolwich 1,260 30.4 15.1 Lee 976 24.3 8.0 Plumstead 1,971 30.9 13.8 London 133.585 29.3 11.1 *The rates for these years relate to the Administrative County of London, the rates shown for years previous to 1891 relate to the Registration County of London. †Lying-in hospitals are situated in the6e districts. Diagram III. —Deaths (All Causes.) Mean Death - rale, 184-1 -99. 22.6 per 1.000 3 Deaths. The number of deaths in the Administrative County of London in 1899 (52 weeks) was 87,819, giving an annual death rate of 19.3 per 1,000 living. The London death rate in successive periods has been as follows— All causes—Death rates per 1,000 living. 1841-50 24.8 1851-60 23.7 1861-70 24.4 1871-80 22.5 1881-90 20.5 1891 21.01 1892 20.31 1893 21.01 1894 17.41 1895 19.51 1896 18.11 1897 17.71 1898 18.21 1899 19.31 The death rate in each year since 1840 in relation to the mean death rate of the period 1841-99 is shown in diagram III. The following table has been prepared for the purpose of comparing the death rate of the Registration County of London with those of other English towns having populations which exceeded 200,000 persons at the census of 1891. The columns showing death rates corrected lor age and sex distribution have been obtained by multiplying the "crude" death rates by the "factor for correction" published by the Registrar-General in the Annual Summary for 1899. Towns. Estimated population middle of 1899. Crude death rate per 1,010 living. Death rate per 1,000 living (corrected for age and sex distribution). 1889-98. 1899. 1889-98. 1899. London 4546,752 19.62 19.82 20.9 21.1 Manchester 543,902 24.4 24.6 27.6 27.9 Liverpool 634,212 25.6 26.4 28.1 29.0 Birmingham 514,956 20.8 20.8 23.0 23.0 Leeds 423,889 20.6 19.1 22.8 21.2 Sheffield 361,169 21.3 22.2 23.7 24.7 Bristol 320,911 18.5 18.2 19.2 18.9 Nottingham 239,384 18.6 20.0 20.0 21.5 Bradford 236,241 19.4 18.4 22.2 21.1 Hull 234,270 19.9 19.3 20.9 20.3 Salford 218,244 24.3 23.8 27.3 26.8 West Ham 300,241 17.2 16.7 18.6 18.0 London had therefore (comparing the corrected death rates) a lower death rate than any of these towns except Bristol, Bradford, Hull, and West Ham in the year 1899, and a lower death rate than any except Bristol, Nottingham, Hull, and West Ham in the period 1889-98. The following table enables comparison to be made of the death rates of London with the death rates of several foreign cities3— All causes—Death rates per 1,000 living. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. London Paris Brussels Amsterdam Copenhagen Stockholm 19.62 21.3 19.3 19.2 19.5 18.7 19.82 20.2 17.9 15.3 19.2 20.0 St. Petersburg Berlin Vienna Rome New York 29.2 19.7 23.1 21.0 22.8 25.2 18.7 20.6 17.4 18.4 It will be seen that in the period 1889-98 the London death rate was lower than that of any of these towns except Brussels, Amsterdam, Copenhagen and Stockholm, while in 1899 it exceeded the death rates of all except Paris, Stockholm, St. Petersburg and Vienna. The following table shows the crude death rates and the death rates, corrected for differences in the age and sex constitution of the populations, obtaining in each of the sanitary districts of London for the year 1899 (52 weeks), and the period 1889-98— 1 These death rates are fully corrected for institutions, i.e. by the exclusion of deaths of persons not belonging to but occurring in institutions situated within London, and by the inclusion of deaths of persons belonging to but occurring in London institutions situated outside the administrative County. 2 Including deaths of Londoners in the Metropolitan Workhouses, Hospitals and Lunatic Asylums, situated outside Registration London, but excluding deaths of persons not belonging to London occurring in the Highgate Smallpox Hospital, in the London Fever Hospital, in the Middlesex County Lunatic Asylum at Wandsworth, and in the Metropolitan Asylums Board's Hospitals within Registration London. All death rates in this report relating to foreign cities are calculated upon figures published by the Registrar-General. 4 Crude and corrected death rates,1 per 1,000 persons living in sanitary districts of London. Sanitary area. Standard death rate. Factor for correction for age and sex distribution. Crude death rate, 1889-98. Corrected death rate, 1889-98. Comparative mortality figure, 1889-98. (London 1,000.) Crude death rate, 1899. Corrected death rate, 1899. Comparative mortality figure, 1899, (London 1,000.) England and Wales 1915 - - - - - - - London 17.96 1.06626 19.22 20.5 1.000 19.32 20.6 1,000 Battersea 17.80 1.07584 17.6 18.9 922 16.7 18.0 874 Bermondsey 18.10 1.05801 22.1 23.4 1,141 24.1 25.5 1,288 Bethnal.green 18.39 1.01133 22.8 23.7 1,156 22.8 23.7 1,150 Camber well 18.10 1.05801 17.9 18.9 922 17.4 18.4 893 Chelsea 17.95 1.06685 19.4 20.7 1,010 19.6 20.9 1,015 Clerkenwell 17.28 1.10822 22.8 25.3 1.234 22.6 25.0 1,214 Fulham 18.27 1.04817 18.9 19.8 966 19.2 20.1 976 Greenwich 18.68 1.02791 18.9 19.4 946 18.8 19.8 987 Hackney 18.30 1.04645 — — — 16.9 17.7 859 Hammersmith 18.05 1.06094 18.3 19.4 946 190 20.2 981 Hampstead 16.63 1.15153 12.2 14.0 683 11.6 18.4 650 Holborn 17.62 1 08683 25.5 27.7 1,351 24.9 27.1 1,316 Islington 17.90 1.06983 17.7 18.9 922 18.1 19.4 942 Kensington 17.38 1.10184 16.7 18.4 898 17.7 19.5 947 Lambeth 18.24 1.04989 18.9 19.8 966 19.2 20.2 981 Lee 17.67 1.08376 14.8 16.0 780 15.1 16.4 796 Lewisham 17.92 1.06864 13.8 14.7 717 15.7 16.8 816 Limehouse 17.59 1.08869 25.2 27.4 1,387 25.6 27.9 1,854 London, City of 16.65 1.15015 22.0 25.3 1,234 21.5 24.7 1,199 Mile-end Old-town 18.58 1.03068 211 21.7 1,059 21.3 22.0 1,068 Newington 18.32 1.04531 22.4 23.4 1,141 24.0 25.1 1,218 Paddington 17.72 1.08070 16.3 17.6 859 16.1 17.4 845 Plumstead 19.09 1.00314 15.7 15.7 766 14.8 14.8 694 Poplar 18.49 1 03569 21.2 22.0 1,073 22.1 22.9 1,112 Rotherhithe 18.49 1.03569 20.7 21.4 1,044 21.1 21.9 1,068 St. George, Hanover.square 17.34 1.10438 15.0 16.6 810 14.2 15.7 762 St. George-in-the.East 18.43 1.03907 278 28.9 1,410 271 28.2 1,869 St. George, Southwark 17.35 1.10375 25.2 27.8 1,356 27.7 80.6 1,485 St. Giles 17.27 1.10886 22.3 24.7 1,205 19.9 221 1,073 St. James 17.16 1.11597 18.5 20.6 1,005 17.9 20.0 971 St. Luke 17.72 1.08070 26.9 29.1 1,420 28.4 80.7 1,490 St. Martin-in-the.Fields 15.74 1.21665 19.8 24.1 1,176 15.6 19.0 922 St. Marylebone 17.82 1.07464 20.5 22.0 1,073 18.6 200 971 St. Olave 18.42 1.03963 24.5 25.5 1,244 24.9 25.9 1,257 St. Pancras 17.89 1.07043 20.0 21.4 1,044 20.3 21.7 1,058 St. Saviour 18.29 1.04702 25.1 26.3 1,283 25.1 26.8 1,277 Shoreditch 18.45 1.03794 22.7 23.6 1,151 23.8 24.7 1,199 Stoke Newington 17.85 1 07283 — — — 12.7 13.6 660 Strand 16.24 1.17919 25.2 29.7 1,449 22.7 26.8 1,301 Wandsworth 17.93 1.06804 14.5 15.5 756 15.3 16.8 791 Westminster 16.94 1.13046 21.6 24.4 1,190 22.3 25.2 1,223 Whitechapel 17.74 1.07948 22.7 24.5 1,195 21.1 22.8 1,107 Woolwich 16.99 1.12713 19.6 22.1 1,078 21.2 28.9 1,160 The death rates of Stoke Newington and Hackney cannot be given for the period 1889-98, as during some portion of this period Stoke Newington was combined with Hackney; the death rates of the combined area for this period, however, are shown in the following table— Sanitary area. Standard death rate. Factor for correction for age and sex distribution. Crude death rate, 1889-98. Corrected death rate, 1889-98. Comparative mortality figure, 1889-98. [ London 1,000.] Hackney (combined with Stoke Newington) 18.23 1.05047 16.8 17.6 859 It will be seen that all the eastern districts and all the central districts, with the exception of St. Martin-in-the-Fields had in the year 1899 death rates above the average of London. The district of St. Luke had the highest death rate (30.7) and the district of Hampstead the lowest (13.4). 1 All death rates in this report relating to London sanitary districts are fully corrected for institutions (see footnote ('), page 3). 1 See footnote (1) page 3. 5 The following table shows the number of deaths1 occurring at several ages in each of the sanitary districts of the administrative county during the year 1899 (365 days)— All causes. Age-period. 0- 1- 2- 3- A Under 5. 5- 10- 15- 20- 25- 35- 45- 55- 65- 75- 85- All ages. Paddington 444 99 32 18 17 610 32 28 33 33 98 185 200 242 297 249 58 2,065 Kensington 645 159 58 44 29 935 55 32 35 49 183 247 360 374 357 319 103 3,049 Hammersmith 559 136 49 28 26 798 44 26 38 43 126 162 191 184 201 196 52 2,061 Fulham 866 177 70 54 39 1,206 71 35 39 49 138 205 207 198 199 128 38 2,513 Chelsea. 394 115 38 20 14 581 42 19 23 38 93 176 212 221 244 194 50 1,893 St. George, Hanover-sq. 175 44 21 10 10 260 16 10 14 20 75 98 141 169 167 128 42 1,140 Westminster 230 44 16 16 9 315 16 12 18 35 82 127 153 132 119 118 26 1,153 St. James 62 15 2 1 1 81 7 2 5 9 23 44 52 61 49 43 12 388 Marylebone 493 116 50 28 17 704 46 25 22 48 149 246 335 346 366 243 75 2,605 Hampstead 203 33 16 9 6 267 22 11 10 17 60 66 97 108 129 108 30 925 Panceras 1,181 351 122 77 51 1,782 119 44 80 112 312 422 491 564 536 391 99 4,952 Islington 1,542 365 178 131 87 2,303 136 75 106 147 360 490 612 699 714 536 121 6,299 Stoke Newington 82 21 8 6 4 121 8 4 6 12 20 38 36 55 68 68 11 447 Hackney 983 235 94 52 40 1,404 76 57 76 87 222 309 327 379 413 318 79 3,747 St. Giles 127 40 12 7 5 191 7 9 3 9 72 81 117 106 82 49 11 737 St,. Martin-in-the-F'lds 30 6 36 3 1 2 3 12 31 33 23 26 20 3 193 Strand 90 22 "7 6 "5 130 6 7 12 18 36 59 69 80 50 51 5 523 Holborn 158 35 13 10 3 219 9 10 16 12 57 69 102 92 82 52 13 733 Clerkenwell 398 102 52 28 15 595 37 18 18 31 83 146 155 150 156 91 14 1,494 St. Luke 277 100 32 18 11 438 22 10 20 16 62 109 134 111 140 81 16 1,159 London, City of 60 19 12 4 3 98 5 6 16 16 43 69 81 87 89 63 26 599 Shoreditch 846 243 93 60 40 1,282 59 33 44 56 151 226 295 5273 295 136 28 2,878 Bethnal-green 828 236 96 61 41 1,262 68 30 55 58 159 260 266 267 266 202 47 2,940 Whitechapel 442 136 59 25 13 675 45 14 19 26 122 163 172 199 171 84 23 1,713 St. George-in-the-East 410 147 29 33 11 630 20 14 13 32 99 97 104 116 116 54 10 1,305 Limehouse 421 124 53 39 17 654 36 16 34 30 83 146 158 134 115 73 20 1,499 Mile-end Old-town 671 176 77 40 34 998 40 30 36 57 130 189 224 235 255 166 44 2,404 Poplar 1,037 302 118 69 43 1,569 103 52 56 83 205 291 340 401 365 253 44 3,762 St. Saviour, Southw'rk 138 56 22 8 9 233 21 5 10 14 34 58 68 51 64 44 9 611 St. George, Southwark 439 167 62 41 10 719 50 16 29 35 87 166 168 192 130 67 16 1,675 Newington 797 253 95 75 40 1,250 75 33 37 62 167 240 275 288 303 185 43 2,968 St. Olave 53 25 14 5 4 101 4 1 4 >2 16 34 33 40 30 10 2 277 Bermondsey 575 182 84 44 32 917 61 26 21 45 117 154 186 201 186 125 19 2,058 Rot.herhithe 215 62 38 20 11 346 31 15 15 18 58 68 83 92 72 65 10 873 Lambeth 1,487 387 140 108 73 2,195 142 72 91 133 322 497 534 619 650 513 131 5,899 Battersea 843 199 62 46 36 1,186 86 53 55 66 174 222 238 328 257 201 53 2,919 Wandsworth 845 194 65 39 30 1,173 78 35 '65 52 158 253 265 345 339 342 99 3,204 Camberwell 1,176 336 128 88 80 1,808 137 65 81 103 251 326 416 463 499 379 75 4,603 Greenwich 952 229 70 58 36 1,345 96 47 59 71 178 264 303 334 356 278 84 3,415 Lewisham 457 76 41 18 16 608 44 27 30 44 83 139 146 164 223 214 59 1,781 Woolwich 204 55 23 14 10 306 17 11 24 21 60 103 86 86 97 63 7 881 Lee 138 30 15 14 4 201 23 8 8 10 30 19 53 69 87 67 27 602 Plumstead 244 40 13 14 11 322 25 19 15 20 52 66 96 113 90 69 25 912 London 22.217 5.889 2.279 1.486 993 32.864 2,040 1.053 1,393 1,842 5,042 7.360 8,614 3,391 9,450 7,036 1,759 87,854 London mortality in the nine years, 1891-99, compared with the decennium 1881-90. The following table shows the mean death rates obtaining in London at the several ageperiods and for each sex in the decennium 1881-90 and the nine years 1891-99— Age period. Males. Females. Mean death rate 1881-90. Mean death rate 1891-99. Differences per cent. Mean death rate 1881-90. Mean death rate 1891-99. Differences per cent. 0— 73.09 69.83 — 4.5 63.26 59.78 —5.5 5— 593 4.94 —16.7 5.82 5.11 —12.2 10— 2.92 2.49 —14.7 2.89 2.49 —13.8 15— 4.05 3.61 —10.9 3.58 3.04 —151 20— 5.44 4.90 — 9.9 4.40 3.61 —18.0 25— 8.65 7.66 —11.4 6.82 5.84 —14.4 35— 14.96 14.51 — 3 0 11.42 10.92 — 4.4 45— 23.87 23.63 — 1.0 17.23 17.10 — 0.8 55— 41.33 42.10 + 1.9 30.77 30.94 + 0.6 65— 77.97 75.71 — 2.9 63.28 60.93 — 3.7 75— 155.93 156.56 +0.4 134.28 135.72 + 1.1 85 and upwards 297.63 281.88 — 5.3 264.77 264.06 — 0.3 All ages. 22.10 20.86 —5.6 18.83 17.75 —5.7 It will be seen from this table that, with the exception of males and females aged 55-65 and 75-85, the death rates in the period 1891-99 are lower than the corresponding death rates in the decennium 1881-90. 1 See footnote (1), page 3. 6 In previous annual reports it has been shown that a more accurate estimate of the effect on the community of fluctuations of mortality could be obtained by the use of a " life table," the method used being similar to that employed by Dr. Tatham in a report on the health of greater Manchester for the period 1891-3. I now propose to compare on these lines the London mortality in the period 1891-9 with that obtaining in the period 1881-90, and for this purpose shall make use of the following table,* showing the mean future lifetime of males and females in certain agegroups, which has been calculated from Ex and Qx columns of the life table for London 1881-90, published in my annual report for the year 1893. Table I. Mean future lifetime of males and females in groups of ages (calculated from London life tables, 1881-90). Age groups. Males. Females. Age groups. Males. Females. Years. Years. Years. Years. 0— 49.06 52.69 35— 24.19 27.24 5— 48.94 52.68 45— 18.15 20.57 10— 45.05 48.80 55— 12.95 14.56 15— 40.79 44.55 65— 8.89 9.78 20— 36.70 40.39 75— 6.35 6.74 25— 31.04 34.51 85 and upwards 2.75 2.85 In the following table the mean annual number of deaths occurring in the nine years 1891-99 is compared with the annual number of deaths which would have occurred had the death rates of the period 1881-90 been maintained in the period 1891-99, and the annual number of lives gained or lost in the latter period at each age-group is shown. The figures in the last column of the table express this gain or loss in terms of "life capital," these figures being obtained by applying the mean future lifetime figures given in Table I. to the number of lives gained or lost at each age-group. Table II. Age groups. Deaths calculated according to mean rates 1881-90. Mean deaths occurring in the nine years 1891-9. Mean annual gain (+) or loss (—) of lives in the nine years 1891-9 by fluctuations of mortality. Mean annual gain (+) or loss (—) of " life capital" in the nine years 1891-9 by fluctuations of mortality. Males. 0— 18,960 18,113 + 847 +41,554 5— 1,394 1,160 + 234 + 11,452 10— 627 534 + 93 + 4,190 15— 832 744 + 88 + 3,590 20— 1,099 990 + 109 + 4,000 25— 3,003 2,660 + 343 + 10,647 35— 3,833 3,718 + 115 + 2,782 45— 4,299 4,255 + 44 + 799 55— 4,248 4,327 — 79 — 1,023 65— 4,089 3,971 + 118 + 1,049 75— 2,283 2,292 — 9 — 57 85 and upwards 468 443 + 25 + 69 All ages 45,135 43,207 -1,1,928 +79,052 Females. 0— 16,608 15,694 + 914 +48,159 5— 1,382 1,213 + 169 + 8,903 10— 632 545 + 87 + 4,246 15— 817 693 + 124 + 5,524 20— 1,073 880 + 193 + 7,795 25— 2,724 2,334 + 390 + 13,459 35— 3,249 3,106 + 143 + 3,895 45— 3,504 3,477 + 27 + 555 55— 3,931 3,952 — 21 — 306 65— 4,762 4,585 + 177 + 1,731 75— 3,507 3,545 — 38 — 256 85 and upwards 996 994 + 2 + 6 All ages 43,185 41,018 + 2,167 +93,711 Total 88,320 84,225 + 4,095 + 172,763 * The method employed in the calculation of this table is shown in more detail in my annual report for the year 1894, page 10. 7 This table shows that during the period 1891-9 compared with the decennium 1861-90 there has been a mean annual saving of 4,095 lives, representing a mean annual saving of 172,763 years of "life capital." In previous annual reports I have similarly dealt with the mortality figures of the periods 1891-4, 1891-5, 1891-6, 1891-7 and 1891-8, and it is interesting to compare the results obtained in the six periods, viz.— Table III. Periods compared with 1881-90. Mean annual number of lives gained. Mean annual amount of "life capital" gained. Number of years of "life capital" gained to each life gained. years. years. 1891.4 1,042 79,606 76.4 1891.5 1,304 85,519 65.6 1891.6 2,461 104,742 42.6 1891.7 3,587 142,460 39.7 1891.8 4,161 161,331 38.8 1891.9 4,095 172,763 42.2 It will be seen from this table that the number of lives gained per annum has increased in each period up to 1891-8, the figures for 1891-9 showing a slight decline; on the other hand the proportion of "life capital" gained to each life gained decreases in each period up to 1891-8, and in the period 1891-9 has increased. In my annual report for the year 1897 I discussed the cause of these variations in some detail and published an analysis of the mortality figures for the period 1891-4 and succeeding years. The following tables (IV., V. and VI.) are constructed on lines similar to those published in my last annual report, with the addition of the figures for 1899. Bearing in mind the fact that the amount of "life capital" saved is not proportionate to the number of lives saved, but is dependent also upon the ages of the lives saved, these tables furnish the material for estimating the effect of the successive addition of the figures relating to the years 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898 and 1899, to those of the period 1891-4,* and the variations in the proportion of life capital gained to each life gained in the periods 1891-5, 1891-6, 1891-7, 1891-8 and 1891-9, shown in Table III. can thus be more clearly appreciated. Table IV. Ageperiod. Death rates per 1,000 living. Increase or decrease per cent. (compared with death rates in 1881-90). 1891-4. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1891-4. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Males. All ages 21.53 21.00 19.90 19.58 20.05 21.09 — 2.6 — 5.0 — 10.0 — 11.4 — 9.3 — 4.6 0— 70.87 72.72 71.30 65.63 68.95 66.38 — 3.0 — 0.5 — 2.4 — 10.2 — 5.7 — 9.2 5— 5.46 4.51 5.47 4.37 4.16 4.16 — 7.9 — 23.9 — 7.8 — 26.3 — 29.8 — 29.8 10— 2.63 2.52 2.43 2.47 2.01 2.46 — 9.9 — 13.7 — 16.8 — 15.4 — 31.2 — 15.8 15— 3.90 3.39 3.39 3.38 3.17 3.61 — 3.7 — 16.3 — 16.3 — 16.5 — 21.7 — 10.9 20— 5.06 4.67 4.59 4.66 4.71 5.23 — 7.0 — 14.2 — 15.6 — 14.3 — 13.4 — 3.9 25— 8.08 7.59 6.94 7.03 7.20 7.91 — 6.6 — 12.3 — 19.8 — 18.7 — 16.8 — 8.6 35— 15.23 13.45 12.99 14.07 13.71 15.45 + 1.8 — 10.1 — 13.2 — 5.9 — 8.4 + 3.3 45— 24.61 23.21 20.86 22.54 22.48 25.11 + 3.1 — 2.8 — 12.6 — 5.6 — 5.8 + 5.2 55— 43.15 41.87 37.10 39.87 41.74 45.61 + 4.4 + 1.3 — 10.2 — 3.5 + 1.0 + 10.4 65— 80.58 76.92 67.15 67.90 68.16 79.35 + 3.3 — 1.3 — 13.9 — 12.9 — 12.6 + 1.8 75— 156.05 160.08 143.38 148.83 155.96 175.59 + 0.1 + 2.7 — 8.0 — 4.6 + 0.0 + 12.6 85 and upwards 288.41 288.99 232.81 256.25 269.35 334.97 — 3.1 — 2.9 — 21.8 — 13.9 — 9.5 + 12.5 Ageperiod. Death rates per 1,000 living. Increase or decrease per cent. (compared with death rates in 1881-90). 1891-4. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1891-4. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Females All ages 18.46 18.23 16.83 16.27 16.80 17.82 — 20 — 3.2 — 10.6 — 13.6 — 10.8 — 5.4 0— 60.96 62.10 62.07 55.69 58.78 55.63 — 3.6 — 1.8 — 1.9 — 12.0 — 7.1 — 12.1 5— 5.72 4.79 5.36 4.58 4.08 4.37 — 1.7 — 17.7 — 7.9 — 21.3 — 29.9 — 24.9 10— 2.66 2.57 2.42 2.25 212 2.47 — 8.0 — Ill — 16.3 — 221 — 26.6 — 14.5 15— 3.32 2.94 2.82 2.77 2.63 293 — 7.3 — 17.9 — 21.2 — 22.6 — 26.5 — 18.2 20— 4.01 3.72 313 316 314 3.36 — 8.9 — 15.5 — 28.9 — 28.2 — 28.6 — 23.6 25— 6.33 5.77 5.41 5.30 5.26 560 — 7.2 — 15.4 — 20.7 — 22.3 — 22.9 — 17.9 35— 11.41 10.59 10.41 10.40 994 11.30 — 0.1 — 7.3 — 8.8 — 8.9 — 13.0 — 1.1 45— 17.53 17.03 15.34 15.86 16.59 18.91 + 1.7 — 1.2 — 11.0 — 8.0 — 3.7 + 9.8 55— 32.44 31.83 26.83 27.51 2905 33.54 + 5.4 + 3.4 — 12.8 — 10.6 — 5.6 + 9.0 65— 65.80 64.13 50.17 52.93 55.55 62.93 + 4.0 + 13 — 20.7 — L6.4 — 12.2 — 0.6 75— 136.60 146.18 117.59 123.15 132.23 155.17 + 1.7 + 8.9 — 12.4 — 8.3 — 1.5 + 15.6 85 and upwards 260.67 278.84 231.82 262.79 254.14 303.79 — 1.5 + 5.3 — 12.4 — 0.7 — 4.0 + 14.7 * It skould be po'nted out that all figures relating to the period 1891-1 are mean annual. 8 Table V. Age-period. Number of lives gained (+) or lost (—) by fluctuations of mortality in the undermentioned periods compared with the decennium 1881-90. Amount of "life capital" gained (+) or lost (—) by fluctuations of mortality in the undermentioned periods compared with the decennium 1881-90. 1891-4 (mean). 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1891-4 (mean). 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Males. Tears. Years. Years. Years. Years. Years. All ages + 528 + 1,629 + 3,944 + 4,652 + 3,704 + 1,491 + 38,117 + 58,384 + 97,972 +166,348 + 130,196 + 112,041 0— + 563 + 95 + 469 + 1,971 + 1,105 + 1,805 + 27,621 + 4,661 + 23,009 + 96,697 + 54,211 + 88,553 5— + 108 + 334 + 108 + 374 + 427 + 431 + 5,286 + 16,346 + 5,286 + 18,304 + 20,897 + 21,093 10— + 61 + 86 + 105 + 98 + 200 + 103 + 2,748 + 3,874 + 4,730 + 4,415 + 9,010 + 4,640 15— + 31 + 136 + 136 + 139 + 186 + 93 + 1,264 + 5,547 + 5,547 + 5,670 + 7,587 + 3,793 20— + 74 + 155 + 173 + 160 + 151 + 45 + 2,716 + 5,688 + 6,349 + 5,872 + 5,542 + 1,651 25— + 194 + 366 + 600 + 572 + 517 + 268 + 6,022 + 11,361 + 18,624 + 17,755 + 16,048 + 8,319 35— — 68 + 386 + 508 + 231 + 329 — 130 — 1,645 + 9,337 + 12,289 + 5,588 + 7,959 — 3,145 45— — 130 + 118 + 546 + 244 + 258 — 232 — 2,359 + 2,142 + 9.910 + 4,429 + 4,683 — 4,211 55— — 183 — 55 + 439 + 153 — 44 — 457 — 2,370 — 712 + 5,685 + 1,981 — 570 — 5,918 65— — 134 + 55 + 572 + 538 + 529 — 75 — 1,191 + 489 + 5,085 + 4,783 + 4,7030 — 667 75— 2 — 61 + 185 + 106 ... — 299 — 13 — 387 + 1,175 + 673 ... — 1,899 85 and upwards + 14 + 14 + 103 + 66 + ' 46 — 61 + 38 + 38 + 283 + 181 + 126 — 168 Females. All ages + 514 + 1,064 +4,330 + 5,684 + 4,475 + 2,077 Years. Years. Years. Years. Years. Years. +41,489 + 62,432 + 103,844 +201,467 + 163,579 + 152,256 0— + 591 + 304 + 314 4- 2,025 + 1,209 + 2,077 +31,139 + 16,018 + 16,545 +106,697 + 63,702 + 109,437 5— + 24 + 244 + 111 + 299 + 426 + 358 + 1,264 + 12,854 + 5,847 + 15,751 + 22,442 + 18,859 10— + 50 + 69 + 105 + 142 + 173 + 96 + 2,440 + 3,367 + 5,124 + 6,930 + 8,442 + 4,685 15— + 58 + 147 + 176 + 189 + 222 + 154 + 2,584 + 6,549 + 7,841 + 8,420 + 9,890 + 6,861 20— + 93 + 167 + 313 + 308 + 317 + 263 + 3,756 + 6,745 + 12,642 + 12,440 + 12,804 + 10,623 25— +" 193 + 420 + 567 + 619 + 641 + 504 + 6,660 + 14,494 + 19,567 + 21,362 + 22,121 + 17,393 35— + 3 + 235 + 289 + 297 + 433 + 37 + 82 + 6,401 + 7,872 + 8,090 + 11,795 + 1,008 45— — 60 + 41 + 387 + 283 + 134 — 354 — 1,234 + 843 + 7,961 + 5,821 + 2,756 — 7,282 55— — 208 — 135 + 507 + 424 + 226 — 367 — 3,028 — 1,966 + 7,382 + 6,173 + 3,291 — 5,344 65— — 186 — 64 + 996 + 794 + 598 + 27 — 1,819 — 626 + 9,741 + 7,765 + 5,848 + 264 75— — 59 — 311 + 440 + 296 + 55 — 566 — 398 — 2,096 + 2,966 + 1,995 + 371 — 3,815 85 and upwards + 15 — 53 + 125 + 8 + 41 — 152 + 43 — 151 + 356 + 23 + 117 433 Total + 1,042 +2,693 +8,274 + 10,336 + 8,179 + 3,568 + 79,606 + 120,816 + 201,816 +367,815 + 293,775 + 264,297 Table VI. Period. Number of lives gained ( +) or lost (—) by fluctuations of mortality (compared with the period 1881-90). Amount of " life capital" gained ( + )or lost (—) by fluctuation! of mortality (compared with the period 1881-30). Ages Under 25. Apes 25 and upwards. All ages. Ages Under 25. Ages 25 and upwards. All ages. Years. Years. Years. 1891-4 + 1,653 — 611 + 1,042 + 80,818 — 1,212 + 79,606 1895 + 1,737 + 956 + 2,693 + 81,649 + 39,167 + 120,816 1896 + 2,010 + 6,264 + 8,274 + 92,920 + 108,896 + 201,816 1897 + 5,705 + 4,631 + 10,336 + 281,196 + 86,619 + 367,815 1898 + 4,416 + 3,763 + 8,179 + 214,527 + 79,248 + 293,775 1899 + 5,425 — 1,857 + 3,568 + 270,195 — 5,898 + 264,297 It is important to ascertain in respect of which causes of mortality there has in recent years been saving or loss of "life capital." In the present report it is not proposed to discuss this subject in any detail, but the following tables A and B have been prepared to enable this question to be considered. Table A shews the London death rates per 1,000 living from the principal causes of death in the periods 1881-90, 1891-4, and the years 1895 to 1899 inclusive, for "all ages" and "ages under 25" and "25 and upwards." Table B shews the increase or decrease in the death rates of 1891-4 and subsequent years when compared with the death rates obtaining in the period 1881-90. It will be seen that the net gain of life and "life capital" shown in Table VI. is a balance between gains and losses from particular causes of mortality, and that while in respect of some of these causes as in Phthisis, there has been gain in each of the periods compared with 1881-90, both among persons aged under 25 and 25 and upwards; in others, such as Cancer, there has been loss in practically all of these periods at each age group. Again, in respect to certain other causes of mortality this constancy is not manifest and often gain in one age group is in the same period attended by loss in the other age group. 9 Table A. London—Death rates1 per 1,000 living. Cause of death. All Ages. 18811890. 18911894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. All Causes 2038 19.93 19.54 18.28 17.84 18.34 19.37 Smallpox .12 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 - Measles .64 .59 .61 .83 .43 .68 .47 Scarlet fever .33 .23 .17 .19 .16 .12 .08 Diphtheria .26 .55 .54 .60 .51 .40 .43 Whooping cough .69 .57 .35 .66 .41 .48 .38 Typhus .01 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 Enteric fever .19 .14 .14 13 .13 .13 .18 Simple continued fever .02 .01 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 Diarrhoea and Dysentery .75 .59 .82 .72 .93 .97 .92 Cholera .02 .02 .02 .02 .03 .03 .03 Cancer .68 .79 .85 .87 .89 .92 .94 Tabes Mesenterica .35 .29 .29 .24 .22 .22 .22 Phthisis 2.08 1.85 1.78 1.70 1.73 1.73 1.82 Other Tubercular diseases and Scrofula .54 .51 .52 .49 .48 .50 .46 Nervous system, Diseases of the 2.33 1.95 1.80 1.71 1.64 1.64 1.65 Circulatory system do. 1.50 1.55 1.55 1.47 1.53 1.48 1.68 Respiratory system do. 4.30 4.44 4.16 3.22 3.10 3.25 3.83 Digestive system do. 1.12 1.07 1.15 1.16 1.29 1.32 1.49 Urinary system do. .51 .52 .52 .51 .54 .53 .57 Generative system do. .08 .06 .06 .06 .07 .06 .06 Influenza .02 .40 .48 .11 .15 .28 .40 Other causes 3.84 3.80 3.73 3.59 3.60 3.60 3.76 Cause of death. Under 25. 18811890. 18911894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. All causes 19.43 18.10 18.07 17.96 16.39 1696 1655 Smallpox .14 .00 .00 .00 .00 — — Measles 1.20 1.13 1.16 1.57 .81 1.29 •89 Scarlet fever .60 .43 .31 .36 .29 .22 .14 Diphtheria .47 1.01 1.00 1.13 .95 .74 .81 Whooping cough 1.30 1.09 .66 1.25 .78 .91 .72 Typhus .01 .00 .00 .00 — .00 .00 Enteric fever .20 .14 .13 .13 .12 .13 .15 Simple continued fever .02 .01 .00 .00 .00 .00 — Diarrhoea and Dysentery 1.27 1.01 1.45 1.28 1.64 1.72 1.63 Cholera .03 .03 .03 .04 .04 .05 .05 Cancer .03 .03 .04 .04 .04 .04 .05 Tabes Mesenterica .65 .52 .54 .43 .40 .39 .39 Phthisis .89 .77 .71 .66 .64 .64 .68 Other Tubercular diseases and Scrofula .96 .88 .89 .81 .81 .85 .75 Nervous system, Diseases of the 2.11 1.67 1.52 1.39 1.26 1.26 1.24 Circulatory system do. .31 .38 .34 .33 .33 .29 .36 Respiratory system do. 4.12 3.71 3.66 3.27 2.88 2.88 2.96 Digestive system do. .91 .96 1.17 1.19 1.39 1.45 1.69 Urinary system do. .12 .10 .09 .09 .08 .09 .07 Generative system do. .02 .01 .01 .01 .02 .02 .01 Influenza .01 .13 .17 .05 .05 .09 .11 Other causes 4.06 4.09 4.19 3.93 3.86 3.90 3.85 1 These death-rates are based upon deaths registered in the Registration County of London, and are uncorrected for deaths occurring in public institutions. [2] 10 Cause of death. Over 25. 18811890. 18911894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. All causes Smallpox Measles Scarlet fever Diphtheria Whooping cough Typhus Enteric fever Simple continued fever Diarrhoea and Dysentery Cholera Cancer Tabes Mesenterica Phthisis Other Tubercular diseases and Scrofula Nervous system, Diseases of the Circulatory system do. Respiratory system do. Digestive system do. Urinary system do. Generative system do. Influenza Other causes 2144 .09 .00 .01 .02 .00 .01 .17 .02 .16 .01 1.43 .02 3.44 .08 259 2.83 4.51 1.36 .94 .14 .03 3.58 21.96 .01 .00 .01 .03 .00 .00 .13 .01 .13 .01 1.64 .02 3.05 .09 2.27 2.86 5.24 1.20 .99 .12 .69 3.46 21.17 .00 .00 .00 .02 .00 .00 .16 .00 .12 .00 1.75 .02 2.96 .11 2.10 2.90 4.72 1.14 .99 .11 .84 3.23 18.64 .00 .00 .00 .02 .00 .00 .13 .00 .10 .00 1.80 .02 2.86 .12 2.07 2.74 3.18 1.12 .97 .11 .18 3.22 19.44 .00 .00 .01 .02 .00 .00 .14 .00 .14 .01 1.84 .02 2.94 .11 2.07 2.87 3.34 1.17 1.05 .13 .26 3.32 19.87 .00 .00 .01 .01 .00 .00 .13 .00 .13 .01 1.89 .03 2.95 .11 2.08 2.81 3.67 1.17 1.01 .10 .49 3.27 22.50 – .00 .01 .02 .00 .00 .20 .00 .14 .01 1.95 .02 3.10 .13 2.11 3.13 4.80 1.26 1.13 .12 .71 3.66 In this table, 00 indicates that the deaths were too few to give a rate of 005; when no death occurred, — is inserted. Table B. London—Increase (+) or decrease (—) in death rates of 1891-4, 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898 and 1899, compared with the death rates obtaining in the period 1881-90. Cause of death. All ages. 1891-1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. All causes — .45 — .84 — 2.10 — 2.54 — 2.04 — 1.01 Smallpox — .12 — .12 — .12 — .12 — .12 — .12 Measles — .05 — .03 + .19 — .21 + .04 — .17 Scarlet fever — .10 — .16 — .14 — .17 — .21 — .25 Diphtheria + .29 + .28 + .34 + .25 + .14 + .17 Whooping cough — .12 — .34 — .03 — .28 — .21 — .31 Typhus — .01 — .01 — .01 — .01 — .01 — .01 Enteric fever — .05 — .05 — .06 — .06 — .06 — .01 Simple continued fever — .01 — .02 — .02 — .02 — .02 — .02 Diarrhoea and Dysentery — .16 + .07 — .03 + .18 + .22 + .17 Cholera + .00 + .00 + .00 + .01 + .01 + .01 Cancer + .11 + .17 + .19 + .21 + .24 + .26 Tabes Mesenterica — .06 — .06 — .11 — .13 — .13 — .13 Phthisis — .23 — .30 — .38 — .36 — .35 — .26 Other Tubercular diseases and Scrofula — .03 — .02 — .05 — .06 — .04 — .08 Nervous system, Diseases of the — .38 — .53 — .62 — .69 — .69 — .68 Circulatory system do. + .05 + .05 — .03 + .03 — .02 + .18 Respiratory system do. + .14 — .14 — 1.08 — 1.20 — 1.05 — .47 Digestive system do. — .05 + .03 + .04 + .17 + .20 + .37 Urinary system do. + .01 + -01 + .00 + .03 + .02 + .06 Generative system do. — .02 — -02 — .02 — .01 — .02 — .02 Influenza + .38 + -46 + .09 + .13 + .26 + .38 Other causes — .04 - 11 — .25 — .24 — .24 — .08 11 Cause of death. Under 25. 1891-1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. All causes Smallpox Measles Scarlet fever Diphtheria Whooping cough Typhus Enteric fever Simple continued fever Diarrhoea and Dysentery Cholera Cancer Tabes Mesenterica Phthisis Other Tubercular diseases and Scrofula Nervous system, Diseases of the Circulatory system do. Respiratory system do. Digestive system do. Urinary system do. Generative system do. Influenza Other causes — 1.33 — .14 — .07 — .17 + .54 — .21 — .01 — .06 — .01 — .26 + .00 + .00 — .13 — .12 — .08 — .44 + .07 — -41 + .05 — .02 — .01 + .12 + .03 — 1.36 — .14 — .04 — .29 + .53 — .64 - .01 — .07 — .02 + .18 + .00 + .01 — .11 — .18 — .07 — .59 + .03 — .46 + .26 — .03 — .01 + .16 + .13 — 1.47 — .14 4- .37 — .24 4- .66 ■— .05 — .01 — .07 — .02 + .01 + .01 + .01 — .22 — .23 — .15 — .72 + .02 — .85 + .28 — .03 — .01 + .04 — .13 — 3.04 — .14 — .39 — .31 + .48 — .52 — .01 — .08 — .02 + .37 + .01 + .01 — .25 — .25 — .15 — .85 + .02 — 1.24 + .48 — .04 + .00 + .04 — .20 — 2.47 — .14 4- .09 — .38 + .27 — .39 — .01 — .07 — .02 + .45 + .02 + .01 — .26 — .25 — .11 — .85 — .02 — 1.24 + .54 — .03 + .00 + .08 – .16 — 2.88 — .14 — .31 — .46 + .34 — .58 — .01 — .05 — .02 + .36 + .02 + .02 — .26 — .21 — .21 — .87 + .05 — 1.16 + .78 — .05 — .01 + .10 — .21 Cause of death. Over 25. 1891-1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. All causes Smallpox Measles Scarlet fever Diphtheria Whooping cough Typhus Enteric fever Simple continued fever Diarrhoea and Dysentery Cholera Cancer Tabes Mesenterica Phthisis Other Tubercular diseases and Scrofula Nervous system, Diseases of the Circulatory system do. Respiratory system do. Digestive system do. Urinary system do. Generative system do. Influenza Other causes + .52 — .08 + .00 + .00 + .01 + .00 — .01 — .04 — .01 — .03 + .00 + .21 + .00 — .39 + .01 — .32 + .03 + .73 — .16 + .05 — .02 + .66 — .12 — .27 — .09 + .00 — .01 + -00 + .00 — .01 — .01 — .02 — .04 — .01 + .32 + -00 — .48 + .03 — .49 + .07 + .21 — .22 + .05 — .03 + .81 — .35 — 2.80 — .09 + .00 — .01 + .00 + .00 — .01 — .04 — .02 — .06 — .01 + .37 + .00 — .58 + .04 — .52 — .09 — 1.33 — .24 + .03 — .03 + .15 — .36 — 2.00 — .09 + .00 + .00 + .00 + .00 — .01 — .03 — .02 — .02 + .00 + .41 + .00 — .50 + .03 — .52 + .04 — 1.17 — .19 + .11 — .01 + .23 — .26 — 1.57 — .09 + .00 + .00 — .01 + .00 — .01 — .04 — .02 — .03 + .00 + .46 + .01 — .49 + .03 — .51 — .02 — .84 — .19 + .07 — .04 4- .46 — .31 + 1.06 — .09 + .00 + .00 + .00 + .00 — .01 + 03 — .02 — .02 + .00 + .52 + .00 — .34 + .05 — .48 + .30 + .29 — .10 + .19 — .02 + .68 + .08 In the foregoing statement it has been necessary to use figures relating to deaths actually registered in London. In the following table are shown the figures obtained after exclusion of the deaths of persons, not resident in London, occurring in public institutions within the county, and the inclusion of the death of Londoners occurring in public institutions belonging to London, but situated outside the county. It will be observed that the effect of distribution is to reduce the number of deaths at the earlier ages, and to increase the number at the later ages shown in the table. The effect of this correction on the death rates is, however, but trifling. 12 Deaths and death rates during 1899 in London from "all causes" at certain age-periods (1) before distribution, and (2) after distribution, of deaths occurring in public institutions— Age-period. Deaths. Difference. Death rates per 1,000 living. Before distribution. After distribution. Before distribution. After distribution. All ages 88,063 87,854 — 209 19.37 19.23 0— 33,020 32,864 — 156 60.98 60.40 5- 2,091 2,040 — 51 4.26 4.14 10— 1,107 1,063 — 44 2.46 2.35 15— 1,464 1,393 — 71 3.25 3.08 20— 1,945 1,842 — 103 4.21 3.96 25— 5,170 5,012 — 128 6.67 6.48 35— 7,440 7,360 — 80 13.26 13.06 45— 8,682 8,614 — 68 21.82 21.55 55— 9,309 9,391 + 82 38.92 39.08 65— 9,231 9,450 + 219 69.67 70.98 75— 6,872 7,036 + 164 162.50 165.58 85 and upwards 1,732 1,759 + 27 312.97 316.37 Infant- mortality. The deaths of children under one year of age in the Administrative County of Londc during 1899 (52 weeks) numbered 22,209, being in the proportion of 166 per 1,000 births. The proportion in each year since 1890 has been as follows— Year. Deaths under one year per 1,000 births. 1891 153 1892 154 1893 163 1894 143 1895 165 1896 160 1897 158 1898 166 1661 The following table enables comparison to be made of the infant mortality in London and other English towns having more than 200,000 inhabitants— Deaths under one year of age per 1,000 births. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. Towns. . 1889-98. 1899. London 157 1672 Bristol 148 158 Manchester 187 206 Nottingham 176 210 Liverpool 191 198 Bradford 174 181 Birmingham 184 191 Hull 177 175 Leeds 179 171 Salford 200 209 Sheffield 183 194 West Ham 157 197 London had therefore in the period 1889-98 a lower infant mortality than any of these towns except Bristol and West Ham, and in 1899 a lower infant mortality than any except Bristol. The following table shows the infant mortality in 1899 and in the period 1889-98 in each of the London sanitary districts— Sanitary district. Deaths under one year of age. Deaths under one year of age per 1,000 births. 1889-98. 1899. Paddington 443 150 151 Kensington 645 167 180 Hammersmith 560 166 183 Fulham 865 169 189 Chelsea 391 158 164 St. George, Hanover-square 174 135 129 Westminster 231 166 207 St. James 62 158 142 Marylebone 495 137 124 Hampstead 203 119 129 Pancras 1,181 163 178 Islington 1,546 147 160 1 See footnote ('), page 3. 1 See footnote (2), page 3. 13 Sanitary district. Deaths under one year of age. Deaths under one year of age per 1,000 births. 1889-98. 1899. Stoke Newington 82 139 103 Hackney 985 153 St. Giles 127 149 112 St. Martin-in-the-Fields 30 191 203 Strand 89 196 189 Holborn 163 202 226 Clerkenwell 395 177 193 St. Luke 270 150 149 London, City of 60 148 144 Shoreditch 844 177 204 Bethnal-green 827 164 174 Whitechapel 442 155 147 St. George-in-the-East 413 191 200 Limehouse 418 186 216 Mile-end Old-town 673 154 158 Poplar 1,039 165 176 St. Saviour, Southwark 141 186 203 St. George, Southwark 437 189 205 Newington 798 176 391 St. Olave 53 159 147 Bermondsey 574 161 187 Rotherhithe 215 158 170 Lambeth 1,487 146 158 Battersea 837 162 162 Wandsworth 846 134 153 Camberwell 1,178 154 158 Greenwich 950 154 167 Lewisham 452 140 148 Woolwich 206 156 163 Lee 138 125 141 Plumstead 244 124 London 22,209 157 1661 During the year 1899 the eastern group of districts had the highest infant mortality (179), the northern the lowest (154), the infant mortality of the southern, central, and western groups being 1G4, 168, and 173 respectively. Of the districts, Holborn had the highest (226) and Stoke Newington the lowest infant mortality (103). Deaths from several classes of disease. Deaths from the several classes of disease registered in the Registration County of London (including the lunatic asylums and hospitals for infectious disease belonging to the county) are given by the Registrar-General in the Annual Summary of Births, Deaths and Causes of Death, and the following table has been prepared from the figures contained in the summary relating to the year 1899— Causes of death. Corrected annual average 1889-98. 1899. Zymotic diseases 14,966 14,228 Parasitic „ 70 44 Dietetic ,, 625 851 Constitutional diseases 17,280 17,400 Developmental „ 5,741 6,194 Nervous „ 9,268 8,247 Diseases of organs of special sense 173 189 Diseases of the circulatory system 7,244 7,699 Respiratory diseases 18,274 17,611 Diseases of the Digestive system 5,218 6,917 „ „ Lymphatic „ 119 109 Urinary 2,353 2,632 „ „ Generative „ 553 511 „ „ Locomotive „ 311 245 „ „ Integumentary system 315 305 Violence (accident) 2,919 3,220 Violence (other than accident) 525 545 Other causes 3,008 2,742 All Causes 88,962 89,6892 1 See footnote ('), page 3. * See footnote (2), page 3. 14 The following table gives more detailed information concerning the principal diseases included in the constitutional, nervous, and respiratory groups— Causes of death.1 Corrected annual average 1889-98. 1899. Rheumatic fever, rheumatism of heart 405 390 Rheumatism 110 105 Gout 166 125 Rickets 282 240 Cancer 3,669 4,234 Tabes mesenterica 1,232 962 Tubercular meningitis 1,257 1,122 Phthisis 8,453 8,510 Scrofula, tuberculosis 1,024 994 Other constitutional diseases 682 718 Apoplexy 2,262 2,294 Epilepsy 398 353 Convulsions 2,136 1,683 Other diseases of the brain and nervous system 4,472 3,917 Croup 257 77 Bronchitis 10,203 9,195 Pneumonia 6,069 6,666 Pleurisy 311 288 Other diseases of the respiratory system 1,434 1,385 More exact comparison can be made of certain causes of death in London sanitary districts by reference to the following table. These death rates are fully corrected for deaths in institutions (see footnote (1), page 3), but are uncorrected for differences in age and sex distribution. Such correction may perhaps, profitably be made when the death rates from these diseases, fully corrected for institution deaths, can be ascertained for a more extended period than one or two years. Death rates2 per 100,000 from all causes and from certain causes in each sanitary area, l899 (365 days). Sanitary area. Measles. Rheumatic fever. Cancer. Tabes mesenterica. Tubercular meningitis. Phthisis. Other tubercular diseases. Pneumonia. Other diseases of respiratory system. Other causes. All causes. Paddington 5 5 124 13 11 114 9 101 214 1,008 1,604 Kensington 13 8 99 15 20 136 16 141 224 1,092 1,764 Hammersmith 19 6 89 23 28 169 10 141 233 1,177 1,895 Fulham 51 8 63 21 23 182 18 148 229 1,180 1,923 Chelsea 19 5 101 17 24 179 20 145 272 1,175 1,957 St. George, Hanover-sq. 21 2 113 4 14 136 15 84 194 827 1,410 Westminster 33 94 17 31 326 8 165 319 1,219 2,212 St. James, Westminster 14 9 110 5 18 211 5 114 220 1,072 1,778 Ma,rvlfibone ... ... 16 6 107 8 22 201 13 112 250 1,124 1,859 Hampstead 27 5 87 6 15 79 12 70 108 743 1,152 Pancras 41 9 93 14 25 198 26 189 245 1,185 2,025 Islington 47 10 83 22 27 160 18 128 245 1,070 1,810 Stoke Newington 28 11 105 17 28 85 11 94 136 755 1,270 Hackney 49 5 85 18 23 149 20 120 186 1,029 1,684 St. Giles 43 8 105 13 30 320 19 169 242 1,032 1,981 St. Martin-in-the-Fields 41 8 82 16 8 189 8 140 124 974 1,590 Strand 22 17 74 9 39 269 43 191 326 1,282 2,272 Holborn 37 17 101 17 37 304 14 192 388 1,368 2,475 Clerkenwell 56 8 70 20 36 235 26 177 350 1,283 2,261 St. Luke 64 10 73 24 22 357 20 213 482 1,571 2,836 City of London 14 14 96 7 29 204 32 161 268 1,315 2,140 Shoreditch 74 11 79 40 30 208 30 174 317 1,414 2,377 Bethnal green 76 10 87 45 40 235 17 191 348 1,232 2,281 Whitechapel 71 9 72 33 25 243 25 210 289 1,128 2,105 St. George-in-the-East 117 2 66 25 39 257 33 253 334 1,562 2,688 Limehonse 105 9 90 36 36 233 37 207 281 1,517 2,551 Mile-end Old-town 46 11 69 17 27 183 23 187 243 1,318 2,124 Poplar 60 9 75 39 23 213 12 162 291 1,321 2,205 St. Saviour, Southwark 91 8 78 54 58 351 33 240 289 1,322 2,524 St. George, Southwark 101 15 88 41 25 342 36 263 349 1,507 2,767 Newington 70 13 101 34 22 263 25 202 281 1,380 2,391 St. Olave 90 81 18 45 243 18 333 361 1,307 2,496 Bermondsey 78 9 80 40 30 214 21 223 261 1,440 2,396 Rotherhithe 34 10 90 88 19 183 17 263 205 1,218 2,127 Lambeth 55 7 89 17 23 175 24 126 249 1,150 1,915 Battersea 60 9 67 11 17 156 26 143 180 999 1,668 Wandsworth 29 11 94 11 19 119 17 91 141 996 1,528 Camberwell 49 9 76 21 29 154 18 108 217 1,057 1,738 Greenwich 69 7 91 16 27 150 19 115 195 1,182 1,871 Lewisham 12 10 96 9 19 109 17 80 149 1,076 1,577 Woolwich 31 14 75 34 26 246 39 161 231 1,264 2,121 Lee 65 2 124 25 17 99 17 82 117 949 1,497 Plumstead 5 14 100 25 12 144 11 83 158 872 1,424 Lonodn 47 8 88 21 25 182 90 145 938 1.149 1.923 In this table where — ia inserted no deaths occurred. See footnote (2), page 3. 2 Fee footnote ('), page 3. 15 Principal Zymotic Diseases. The number of deaths in the Administrative County of London from the principal zymotic diseases, viz., small-pox, measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, typhus, enteric, and ill-defined fevers, and diarrhoea during 1899 (52 weeks) was 11,174, giving an annual death rate of 2.46 per 1,000 living. The death rates in each year since 1890 have been as follows— Year. Death rate from principal zymotic diseases. 1891 2.271 1892 2.801 1893 3.041 1894 2.651 1895 2.621 1896 3.ll1 1897 2.561 1898 2.771 1899 2.461 It will be seen from the following table that London in the period 1889-98 had a lower death rate from these diseases than any of the undermentioned towns except Leeds, Bristol, Nottingham and Bradford, and in 1899 a lower death rate than any except Bristol and Bradford. Principal zymotic diseases—Death rates per 1,000 living. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. London 2.732 2.482 Bristol 1.99 1.86 Manchester 3.41 3.92 Nottingham 2.38 3.33 Liverpool 3.51 3.77 Bradford 2.32 2.33 Birmingham 2.90 2.96 Hull 2.85 3.66 Leeds 2.68 2.79 Salford 4.42 4.32 Sheffield 3.19 4.39 West Ham 2.88 3.50 The following table shows that the London death rate from the first six of these principal zymotic diseases, viz., small-pox, measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, whooping-cough, and fever was in 1889-98 higher than that of any of these towns except St. Petersburg, and in 1899 was only exceeded by the rates of St. Petersburg and Stockholm— Six principal zymotic diseases—Death rates per 1,000 living. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. London 2.122 1552 St. Petersburg 3.35 3.17 Paris 1.27 1.03 Berlin... 1.38 1.35 Brussels 0.99 0.99 Vienna 1.66 1.03 Amsterdam 1.07 0.44 Rome ... 1.49 0.78 Copenhagen 1.60 1.26 New York 1.95 1.07 Stockholm 1.94 1.93 The death rates from the principal zymotic diseases in the several sanitary districts of London in 1899 and the period 1889-98 are shown in the following table— Sanitary district. Deaths in 1899 Death-rate per 1,000 living. Sanitary district. Deaths in 1899. Death-rate per 1,000 living. 1889—98. 1899. 1860—98. 1899. Paddington 198 2.06 1.55 Shoreditch 438 3.73 3.64 Kensington 263 2.00 1.53 Bethnal-green 405 3.73 3.15 Hammersmith 230 2.68 2.11 Whitechapel 173 .2.86 2.12 Fulham 423 3.36 3.23 St. George-in-the-East 166 4.28 3.44 Chelsea 205 2.64 2.13 Limehouse 221 4.02 3.78 St. George, Hanoversquare 88 1.48 1.09 Mile-end Old-town 307 3.29 2.72 Poplar 582 3.31 3.41 Westminster 85 2.44 1.64 St. Saviour, Southwark 85 3.16 3.51 St. James 24 1.92 1.12 St. George, Southwark 274 3.81 4.53 Marylebone 236 2.25 1.70 Newington 455 3.28 3.67 Hampstead 93 1.34 1.16 St. Olave 29 3.28 2.61 Pancras 653 2.59 2.69 Bermondsey 296 3.26 3.46 Islingtou 798 2.49 2.30 Rotherhithe 115 3.06 2.80 Stoke Newington 47 2.50 1.33 Lambeth 819 2.54 2.65 Hackney 492 2.22 Battersea 387 3.02 2.22 St. Giles 52 2.32 1.40 Wandsworth 395 2.04 1.89 St. Martin - in - the Fields 13 1.71 1.07 Camberwell 667 2.66 2.52 Greenwich 503 2.87 2.76 Strand... 30 2.44 1.30 Lewisham 230 1.67 2.03 Holborn 66 3.10 2.23 Woolwich 101 2.57 2.44 Clerkenwell 200 3.57 3.04 Lee 83 1.59 .2.06 St. Luke 123 3.74 3.03 Plumstead 86 2.59 1.35 London, City of 38 1.43 1.36 London 11,174 2.711 2. 461 1 See footnote ('), page 3. 2 See footnote (2), page 3. 16 The eastern group of districts had the highest mortality from the principal zymotic diseases in 1899, viz., 317 per 1,000 living, and the western the lowest (1.91). Among the sanitary districts, St. George, Southwark, had the highest death rate (4.53), and St. Martin-inthe-Fields the lowest (1.07). Small-pox and Vaccination. The deaths from small-pox in the Administrative County of London numbered 3 in 1899, and 7 deaths were attributed to "cow-pox and effects of vaccination." The death rates from small-pox in successive periods have been as follows— Period. Smallpox death-rate per 1,000 living. Period. Smallpox death-rate per 1,000 living. 1851-60 0.28 1894 0.0201 1861-70 0.28 1895 0.0121 1871-80 0.46 1896 0.0021 1881-90 0.14 1897 0.0041 1891 i 1898 0.0001 1892 0.0071 1899 0.0011 1893 0.0401 In this table where — is inserted no deaths occurred. The small-pox death rate in each year since 1840 in relation to the mean small-pox death rate of the period 1841-99 is shown in diagram IV. During the complete years in which the notification of infectious diseases has been obligatory, the number of cases of small-pox notified to the medical officers of health in the various sanitary districts comprised in the administrative county has been as follows— Year. Cases notified. Case rate per 1,000 living. 1890 60 0.014 1891 114 0.027 1892 425 0.100 1893 2,815 0.653 1894 1,193 0.274 1895 980 0.223 1896 225 0.050 1897 104 0.023 1898 33 0.007 1899 29 0.006 If the London small-pox death rate be compared with the death rates of the following large English towns, it will be seen that in the period 1889-98 the London death rate was exceeded by the death rates of Birmingham, Bristol, Bradford and West Ham; while in 1899 in none of these towns, except Hull, were sufficient deaths registered to give an appreciable death rate— Small-pox death rates per 1,000 living. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. London 0.012 0.002 Bristol 0.02 Manchester 0.001 — Nottingham 0.00 - Liverpool 0.01 0.00 Bradford 0.07 - Birmingham 0.05 — Hull 0.01 0.60 Leeds 0.01 — Salford 0.01 — Sheffield 0.00 — West Ham 0.05 - In this table 0 00 indicates that the deaths were too few to give a rate of 0.005; where no death occurred — is inserted. If the London small-pox death rate be compared with the death rates of the following large foreign towns, it will be seen that in the period 1889-98 the London rate was exceeded by the rates of all these towns except Amsterdam, Copenhagen, Stockholm and Berlin; while in 1899 in none of these towns, except St. Petersburg, were sufficient deaths registered to give an appreciable death rate— Small-pox death rates per 1,000 living. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. London 0.012 0.002 St. Petersburg 0.12 0.09 Paris 0.03 0.00 Berlin 0.00 0.00 Brussels 0.09 0.00 Vienna 0.04 0.00 Amsterdam 0.00 — Rome 0.03 0.00 Copenhagen Stockholm 0.00 — New York 0.02 — In this table 0.00 indicates that the deaths were too few to give a rate of 0 005 ; where no death occurred — is inserted. 1 See footnote (1), page 3. See footnote (2), page 3. Diagram IV. Smallpox. 17 As in previous years, there was in a number of cases notified error in diagnosis. Examination of all the facts concerning small-pox in 1899 leads to the conclusion that the actual cases of this disease were as follows— April—Whitechapel —A girl, aged 14 years, source of infection unknown. Poplar—A man, aged about 31 years, was infected in Antwerp. May—Fulham—A man, aged 26 years, source of infection unknown; the patient had only been in Fulham two days before he sickened. Marylebone—A man, aged 32 years, had arrived on the 25th May from New York, where he probably was infected. June—Lewisham—A man, aged 46 years; he worked in Deptford; source of infection unknown. Islington—A man aged 49 years, an inmate of the Holborn Infirmary in Islington. November—Poplar—A man, aged 30 years, an engineer's steward who had been infected on board the s.s. "Arundel Castle" in which a passenger had suffered from small-pox. Whitechapel—A man, aged 24 years; he arrived in London from Jerusalem ill with small-pox. He was removed to the German Hospital, where his illness was thought to be scarlet fever. He was then transferred to the Eastern Hospital, where the disease was subsequently recognised to be small-pox. He was then taken to the hospital ship, where he died. December—Seven patients in the Eastern Hospital were infected by this man, and were removed to the Gore Farm Hospital. Thus in addition to four cases in the Port of London, fifteen persons suffered from small-pox in London, all of whom were removed to hospital. Since 1880 the Registrar-General has classified the deaths from small-pox under three heads, viz., "vaccinated," "unvaccinated," and " no statement." The totals for the 19 years, 1881-99, are as follows— Small-pox deaths, London, 1881-99. Age-period. All ages. 0-1 1-5 5-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80 and upwards. Vaccinated 1,285 22 33 229 732 227 39 3 Unvaccinated 2,031 337 486 669 415 105 18 1 No statement 1,907 244 227 455 666 250 62 3 The following table, in which the number of deaths at each age-period is expressed as a percentage of the total deaths from small-pox at "all ages," more clearly indicates the relative age incidence of the disease in the three classes under consideration— "All ages" taken as 100. Age-period. All ages. 0-1 1-5 5-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80 and upwards. Vaccinated 100 1.7 2.6 17.8 57.0 17.7 3.0 0.2 Unvaccinated 100 16.6 23.9 33.0 20.4 5.2 0.9 0.0 No statement 100 12.8 11.9 23.8 34.9 13.1 3.3 0.2 " Vaccinated " and " no statement " combined. " Vaccinated " and "No statement" 100 8.3 8.1 21.4 43.8 15.0 3.2 0.2 Unvaccinated 100 16.6 23.9 33.0 20.4 5.2 0.9 0.0 In previous reports I have referred to the increasing proportion of children born in London who appear in the vaccination returns as " not finally accounted for," a proportion which has especially increased since the appointment of the Royal Commission on Vaccination. The proportion in successive years has been as follows. The figures for the years subsequent to 1897 are not yet available. London vaccination returns. year. Children not finally accounted for (including cases postponed) per cent, of total births. Year. Children not finally accounted for (including cases postponed) percent, of total births. 1872 8.8 1885 7.0 1873 8.7 1886 7.8 1874 8.8 1887 9.0 1875 9.3 1888 10.3 1876 6.5 1889 11.6 1877 7.1 1890 13.9 1878 7.1 1891 16.4 1879 7.8 1892 18.4 1880 7.0 1893 18.2 1881 5.7 1894 20.6 1882 6.6 1895 24.9 1883 6.5 1896 26.4 1884 6.8 1897 29.1 [3] 18 Measles. The deaths from measles in the Administrative County of London in 1899 (52 weeks) numbered 2,141, as compared with 3,077 in 1898. The death rates from this disease per 1,000 living in 1899 and preceding periods have been as follows— Measles—Death rales per 1,000 living. 1851-60 0.53 1894 0.761 1861-70 0.58 1895 0.601 1871-80 0.51 1896 0.821 1881-90 0.64 1897 0.431 1891 0.431 1898 0.681 1892 0.791 1899 0.471 1893 0.381 The death rate in each year since 1840 in relation to the mean death rate of the period 1841-99 is shown in diagram V. If the London measles death rate be compared with the death rates of the following large towns of England it will be seen that in the period 1889-98 the London death rate exceeded the death rates of all except Manchester, Liverpool and Salford, while in 1899 the London death rate was lower than any except Birmingham, Leeds, Bristol and Bradford. Measles—Death rates per 1,000 living. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. London 0.622 0.472 Bristol 0.53 0.13 Manchester 0.82 1.30 Nottingham 0.39 0.58 Liverpool 0.68 0.50 Bradford. 0.44 0.32 Birmingham 0.50 0.38 Hull 0.50 0.51 Leeds 0.55 0.37 Salford 0.97 0.97 Sheffield 0.59 0.61 West Ham 0.60 0.68 The following table shows that the measles death rate in London was higher than that of any of the undermentioned foreign towns in the period 1889-98, and in 1899 was higher than that of any except Brussels, Stockholm and St. Petersburg. Measles—Death rates per 1,000 living. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. London 0.622 0.472 St. Petersburg 0.60 0.58 Paris 0.39 0.36 Berlin 0.17 0.29 Brussels 0.34 0.47 Vienna 0.57 0.42 Amsterdam 0.31 0.02 Rome 0.39 0.06 Copenhagen 0.24 0.28 New York 0.32 0.17 Stockholm 0.33 0.50 In the distribution of measles mortality in London throughout the. year 1899 the eastern group of districts had the highest death rate and the western the lowest. Among the sanitary districts St. George-in-the-East had the highest death rate (1.20) and Plumstead and Paddington the lowest (0.05). During the first quarter of the year the measles mortality in London was 0.34 per 1,000 living, the death rates in the northern, central and eastern groups of districts exceeding this average. During the second quarter of the year the measles death rate in London rose to 0.61 per 1,000 living, the death rates in the northern and eastern groups of districts being above the London average. In the third and fourth quarters of the year the London death rate declined to 0'47 per 1,000 living, and the eastern and southern groups of districts were above the London average in each of these quarters. In each quarter of the year the eastern group of districts had a measles death rate considerably in excess of the London average. 1 See footnote ('), page 3. 2 See footnote (2), page #. Diagram V. Measles. 19 The death rates in each sanitary district of London in the period 1889-98 and in the year 1899 (52 weeks) are shown in the following table— Sanitary district Deaths in 1899. Death-rate per 1,000 living. Sanitary district. Deaths in 1899. Death-rate per 1,000 living. 1889-98. 1899. 1889-98. 1899. Paddington 6 .40 .05 Whitechapel 58 .74 .71 Kensington 24 .47 .14 St. George - in - the East 58 1.02 1.20 Hammersmith 22 .56 .20 Fulham 68 .74 .52 Limehouse 62 1.02 1.06 Chelsea 18 .57 .19 Mile-end Old-town 52 .73 .46 St. George, Hanoversquare 17 .35 .21 Poplar 104 .75 .61 St. Saviour, Southwark 21 .91 .87 Westminster 17 .64 .33 St. James 3 .60 .14 St. George, Southwark 63 .99 1.04 Marylebone 24 .58 .17 Hampstead 22 .27 .27 Newington 87 .79 .70 Pancras 102 .55 .42 St. Olave 10 .87 .90 Islington 164 .60 .47 Bermondsey 68 .86 .79 Stoke Newington 10 .47 .28 Rotherhithe 14 .71 .34 Hackney 110 1.50 Lambeth 170 .54 55 St. Giles 16 .67 .43 Battersea 105 .70 .60 St. Martin - in - the Fields 5 .39 .41 Wandsworth 59 .41 .28 Camberwell 130 .60 .49 Strand 5 .73 .22 Greenwich 127 .61 .70 Holborn 11 .88 .37 Lewisham 14 .28 .12 Clerkenwell 36 .95 .55 Woolwich 13 .74 .31 St. Luke 26 1.06 .64 Lee 25 .28 .62 London, City of 4 .28 .14 Plumstead 3 .63 .05 Shoreditch 90 .86 .75 London 2,141 .62 .471 Bethnal-green 98 .95 .76 The following table shows the number of deaths1 from measles at several age-periods in each of the sanitary districts of the administrative county. For the purposes of this table, deaths occurring in public institutions belonging to London have been distributed to the sanitary areas in which the deceased had previously resided— Measles, 1899 (365 days). Age period. 0— 1— 2— 3— 4— under 5 5— 10— 15 and upwards. All ages. Paddington 1 1 3 — 1 6 — 6 Kensington 6 9 5 3 23 — — — 23 Hammersmith 5 9 4 1 2 21 — — — 21 Fulham 10 27 17 5 1 60 7 — — 67 Chelsea 4 7 3 2 1 17 — — l 18 St. George, Hanover-square — 11 1 1 3 16 1 — — 17 Westminster 7 4 1 3 15 1 — 1 17 St. James 1 2 — — — 3 — — — 3 Marylebone 5 10 6 2 — 23 — — — 23 Hampstead 10 6 3 I 1 21 1 — — 22 Pancras 21 34 23 11 7 96 4 1 — 101 Islington 30 70 28 19 8 155 7 — 3 165 Stoke Newington 2 6 1 — — 9 1 — — 10 Hackney 26 39 21 10 6 102 7 1 — 110 St. Giles 2 7 4 2 — 15 1 — — 16 St. Martin-in-the-Fields 2 3 — — — 5 — — — 5 Strand — 2 1 2 — 5 — — — 5 Holborn 5 5 — — 1 11 — — — 11 Clerkenwell 11 13 4 3 2 33 4 — — 37 St. Luke 9 12 3 1 1 26 — — — 26 London, City of I 2 1 — — 4 — — — 4 Shoreditch 15 45 13 8 4 85 5 — — 90 Bethnal-green 24 40 9 16 7 96 2 — — 98 Whitechapel 25 19 7 5 1 57 1 — — 58 St. George-in-the-East 15 28 5 8 1 57 — — — 57 Limehouse 13 24 13 4 4 58 3 — 1 62 Mile-end Old-town 10 23 10 2 5 50 1 — 1 52 Poplar 24 39 23 11 3 100 2 — 1 103 St. Saviour, Southwark 2 9 8 2 1 22 — — — 22 St. George, Southwark 29 17 7 2 1 56 5 — — 61 Newington 16 39 15 7 7 84 3 — — 87 † See footnote (1), page 3. 20 Age period. 0— 1— 2— 3— 4— under 5 5— 10— 15 and upwards. All ages. St. Olave 4 4 1 1 — 10 — — — 10 Bermondsey 17 35 9 3 1 65 2 — — 67 Rotherhithe 3 7 — 2 1 13 1 — — 14 Lambeth 43 69 32 11 6 161 8 — — 169 Battersea 21 42 9 10 11 93 12 — — 105 Wandsworth 14 23 11 5 2 55 4 — l 60 Camberwell 32 52 15 11 8 118 11 — l 130 Greenwich 38 48 16 10 3 115 9 1 — 125 Lewisham 3 8 3 — — 14 — — — 14 Woolwich 5 5 1 2 — 13 — — — 13 Lee 6 7 5 5 1 24 2 — — 26 Plumstead 2 1 — — — 3 — — — 3 London 519 863 341 191 101 2,015 105 3 10 2,133 In this table where — is inserted no deaths occured. Reference to the prevalence of measles among school children appears in the annual reports relating to the following districts— Westminster—Measles was very prevalent amongst the children attending the St. Jamesthe-Less School, Upper Garden-street, and the Holy Trinity School, Vauxhall-bridge-road, 111 scholars being absent on this account. The schools were fumigated and cleansed, and advice given to parents and teachers to exclude infected children from school until three weeks after recovery. Hampstead—The greatest mortality was in the Town Ward, where several of the elementary and infant departments of public schools were largely affected. Islington—Class-rooms were closed in the infants'departments of the following schools— Upper Hornsey-road, Matthias-road, Ambler-road and Cottenham-road Board Schools. "The results were entirely satisfactory." St. Martin-in-the-Fields—Of 160 scholars attending the infants' department of the Castlestreet schools, 55 were stated to be suffering from measles at the latter part of the year. This department was closed for three weeks and disinfected and cleansed. Strand—Towards the end of the year the St. Clement Danes Infant School was closed for three weeks and disinfected and cleansed. St. Pancras—A special report shows that the infants' department of the Carlton-road Board School was closed lor three weeks in April, owing to prevalence of measles among the scholars, which was brought to the knowledge of the medical officer of health by the head teachers. Shoreditch—The prevalence of measles among the children of the infants' department, Canal-road Board School, 40 per cent, of whom were absent, having been brought by the school authorities to the knowledge of the medical officer of health, the department was closed in November for 17 days, and was fumigated and cleansed. Poplar—In the infants' department of the Glaucus-street Board School there was an outbreak of measles. All children from infected houses were excluded from attendance at the infants', boys' and girls' departments. In July 129 scholars were absent from Woolmorestreet Board School for the reason that either they or other persons in their houses were suffering from measles. A number of scholars at St. Gabriel's Church School, Morris-road, also suffered from measles. A certificate was forwarded to the vicar advising exclusion of children from infected houses. "Shortly after the occurrence of these cases the summer holidays commenced, so that no doubt the spread of the disease was thereby stopped." Lambeth—During the year the infants' departments of the following schools were closed and the rooms disinfected and cleansed—Lollard-street Board School; St. John's, Waring-street; St. Mary-the-Less, Princes-road; and St. Saviour, Salamanca. The proportion of absentees was respectively 44, 29, 19 and 23 per cent. The results of the closing and disinfection were satisfactory. Outbreaks of measles occurred among children attending thirteen other schools, but closing of these schools was not considered to be necessary. Battersea—The Holden-street Board School and St. Mark's School, Battersea-rise, were closed and disinfected on account of prevalence of measles among the scholars. Wandsworth—Garratt-lane Board School and St. Anne's School were closed respectively for 14 and 19 days in November, and certain class-rooms disinfected, with the result that the prevalence of measles was diminished. Camberwell—In May, measles was prevalent throughout Camberwell, but especially in the neighbourhood of the Gloucester-road Board School, and the school was therefore disinfected. The medical officer of health came to the conclusion that this school was not the sole agent in the spread of the disease. Greenwich—During the month of April measles was prevalent among the children attending Halstow-road Board School, which was closed in consequence. Woolwich—A slight outbreak occurred among children attending Maryon-park School. The infants' department was closed for a week after the Eastsr holiday. Plumstead--Notification as to 52 children absent on account of measles was received from school teachers by the medical officer of health. Classes in the infants' departments of the following schools were closed: Eglinton-road; in July; Burrage-grove, in December; and Vicarage-road, in December. Diagram VI. Scarlet Fever Diagram VII. Number of deaths occurring in. hospitals of the Metropolitan Asylmns Board percent of total deaths in London 1873-99. Number of admission* to hospitals of the Metro" Asylums Board per cent of total cases notified in, London 1890-99. 21 The measures for the limitation of measles are discussed in several annual reports, and opinions in favour of the inclusion of this disease among the "dangerous infectious diseases " within the meaning of the Public Health Act, 1891, for the purpose of prohibition of the exposure of infected persons in public places and the use by such persons of public vehicles are expressed by the medical officers of health of Kensington, Fulham, Chelsea and Lambeth. The Lambeth Vestry in March of the present year resolved to urge the London County Council to take the necessary steps for this purpose. Both this sanitary authority and that of Chelsea are in favour of all the provisions of sections 58 to 70 of the Public Health (London) Act being made applicable to measles, and the Vestry of St. Giles resolved to communicate with the Local Government Board as to the need of the compulsory notification of measles. The medical officers of health of Battersea, Poplar (Bow) and of St. George-the-Martyr recommend that measles should be thus notified. The medical officer of health of Holborn is of opinion that it should be made obligatory on heads of families to notify measles. The medical officer of health of Islington urges that all school teachers should be required to inform him of cases of -measles occurring in the families of children attending school and which come to their knowledge, and the medical officer of health of Holborn desires that all cases in which children are absent on account of infectious disease occurring in their families should be brought to his knowledge. Such information as to measles was obtained in numerous cases by the medical officer of health of the Strand, and in a small number of cases by the medical officer of health of Holborn. A circular letter was addressed to all school teachers by the medical officer of health of St. Giles, asking for this information, and the medical officer of health of Chelsea addressed a circular letter to school teachers recommending that during the progress of an epidemic children with nasal or faucial catarrh should be excluded from school. The medical officer of health of Hackney prepared a memorandum for distribution upon the measures which might be taken for the prevention of measles. A copy of this memorandum is sent to the parent of every child whose illness is notified by a school teacher. The Hackney Vestry have offered to disinfect infected articles and rooms, and the Holborn District Board disinfected the rooms occupied by persons whose illness was brought to the knowledge of the medical officer of health of the district by the death returns or by school teachers. Scarlet Fever. The cases of scarlet fever notified in the Administrative County of London during 1899 numbered 18,224, compared with 16,920 in 1898. The number of deaths registered from this cause in 1899 was 398, compared with 581 in 1898. The London rates in 1899 and preceding periods are shown in the following table— Scarlet fever. Period. Death-rate per 1,000 living. Case-rate per 1,000 living. Case mortality per cent. 1861-70 1.13 * - 1871-80 0.60 * — 1881-90 0.33 * - 1891 0.141 2.7 5.1 1892 0.271 6.4 4.3 1893 0.371 8.6 4.3 1894 0.221 4.3 5.2 1895 0.191 4.5 4.2 1896 0.211 5.7 3.7 1897 0.171 5.1 3.0 1898 0.131 3.7 3.4 1899 0.091 4.0 2.2 The death rate in each year since 1858 in relation to the mean death rate of the period 1859-99 is shown in diagram VI., and the monthly case-rate and case-mortality in each of the years 1891-99 will be seen by reference to Diagram XVIII. (page 50). It will be seen from the following table that in the period 1889-98 the London scarlet fever death rate was lower than that of any of the undermentioned towns except Leeds, Bristol, Nottingham and Hull, and in 1899 was lower than that of any except Manchester, Birmingham, Bristol and West Ham. Scarlet fever—Death rates per 1,000 Living. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. London 0.212 0.092 Bristol 0.13 0.04 Manchester 0.32 0.08 Nottingham 0.19 0.23 Liverpool 0.44 0.26 Bradford . 0.23 0.45 Birmingham 0.23 0.06 Hull 0.16 0.17 Leeds 0.20 0.15 Salford 0.44 0.23 Sheffield 0.33 0.25 West Ham 0.22 0.06 The following table shows that the London scarlet fever death rate was lower than that of any of the undermentioned foreign towns except Paris, Brussels, Amsterdam, Vienna and Rome in the period 1889-98, and in 1899 was lower than that of any except Paris, Brussels, Amsterdam and Rome. * The Infectious Diseases (Notification) Act came into force in 1889. 1 Bee footnote (1), page 3. 2 See footnote (2) page 3, 22 Scarlet fever—Death rates per 1,000 living. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. London 0.211 0.091 St. Petersburg 0.72 0.44 Paris 0.07 0.08 Berlin 0.22 0.36 Brussels 0.04 0.06 Vienna 0.21 0.16 Amsterdam 0.03 0.02 Rome 0.02 0.01 Copenhagen 0.23 0.55 0.29 0.16 New York 0.36 0.15 In the distribution of scarlet fever mortality in London throughout the year 1899 the central group of districts had the highest death rate (0.ll) and the eastern group of districts the lowest (0.06). Of the districts the mortality was highest in Rotherhithe (0.27) and lowest in St. Giles and St. Martin-in-the-Fields. During the first quarter of the year the southern group of districts had the highest death rate (0.11) and the central group the lowest (0.03); during the second quarter the western group of districts had the highest death rate (0.11) and the eastern the lowest (0.04); during the third quarter of the year the central group of districts had the highest death rate (0.12), the death rates of the northern, eastern, and southern groups being equal, viz., 0.07 per 1,000 living; during the fourth quarter of the year the central group of districts again had the highest death rate (0.20) and the eastern group the lowest (0.07). The case rate of each district in 1891-8 and in 1899 and the death rate of each district in 1889-98 and in 1899 are shown in the following table— Sanitary district. Cases, 1899. Case-rate per 1,000 living. Deaths, 1899. Death-rate per 1,000 living. 1891-98. 1899. 1889-98. 1899. Paddington 384 3.9 3.0 5 .13 .04 Kensington 444 3.8 2.6 10 .18 .06 Hammersmith 439 4.2 4.0 13 .18 .12 Fulham 847 5.1 6.5 33 .26 .25 Chelsea 282 4.7 2.9 8 .20 .08 St. George, Hanover-square 198 3.7 2.5 7 .12 .09 Westminster 200 3.8 3.8 5 .21 .10 St. James 49 3.3 2.3 1 .17 .05 Marylebone 400 4.0 2.9 15 .19 .11 Hampstead 289 3.8 3.6 6 .11 .07 Pancras 862 5.2 3.5 25 .20 .10 Islington 1,498 5.1 4.3 34 .18 .10 Stoke Newington 182 6.0 5.2 3 .20 .09 Hackney 988 4.5 16 .07 St. Giles 76 3.9 2.0 — .14 — St. Martin-in-the-Fields 31 3.5 2.6 -- .15 — Strand 55 3.9 2.4 1 .20 .01 Holborn 117 5.0 4.0 3 .21 .10 Clerkenwell 321 5.9 4.9 13 .28 .20 St. Luke 162 5.1 4.0 8 .35 .20 London, City of 74 4.7 2.7 1 .18 * .04 Shoreditch 364 5.1 3.0 13 .26 .11 Bethnal-green 430 6.4 3.3 9 .28 .07 Whitechapel 209 5.8 2.6 2 .24 .02 St. George-in-the-East 99 5.7 2.0 3 .35 .06 Limehouse 171 6.7 2.9 1 .33 .02 Mile-end Old-town 294 6.4 2.6 5 .26 .04 Poplar 420 6.2 2.5 10 .26 .06 St. Saviour, Southwark 91 4.6 3.8 2 .27 .08 St. George, Southwark 237 5.6 3.9 6 .32 .10 Newington 509 5.6 4.1 13 .26 .10 St. Olave 64 5.3 5.8 2 .28 .18 Bermondsey 402 5.4 4.7 10 .29 .12 Rotherhithe 256 5.6 6.3 11 .26 .27 Lambeth 1,014 4.9 3.3 25 .20 .08 Battersea 723 6.5 4.1 14 .21 .08 Wandsworth 911 4.6 4.4 9 .13 .04 Camberwell 1,144 4.6 4.3 19 .18 .07 Greenwich 1,206 5.7 6.6 17 .23 .09 Lewisham 710 3.3 6.3 6 .09 .05 Woolwich 167 4.3 4.0 4 .22 .10 Lee 195 6.2 4.9 4 .17 .10 Plumstead 708 11.1 6 .25 .09 Port of London 2 — — — — — London 18,224 51 4.0 398 .212 .092 In this table where — is inserted 110 deaths occurred. 1 See footnote (2), page 3. * See footnote (1) page 3. 23 The following references were made to scarlet fever in the reports of medical officers of health— Paddington—Analysis by the medical officer of health of the cases occurring in this district shows that 24 were imported from without, and that apart from these and "return cases," 269 were primary cases in households and 67 secondary. There were 200 houses with one case, 36 with two, 8 with three, 3 with four, and 1 with five cases. Battersea—The medical officer of health discusses a prevalence of scarlet fever in this parish in the last three weeks of November, during which 60 cases were notified. The disease was in the main especially incident on two districts of the parish. School attendance, milk supply, or other common cause, failed to explain this incidence. Plumstead—The number of cases of scarlet fever in this district was largely in excess of the number in any year since the disease was notifiable. The case rate was ll.l per 1,000, as compared with 4.0 per 1,000 in London as a whole. The medical officer of health, Dr. Davies, presented to his authority a special report on the cases of scarlet fever, 76 in number, occurring in Plumstead during the three weeks ending the 22nd February. In this report, a copy of which was received by the London County Council, he states that the cases did not appear to be associated with any special school or schools. He was unable to exclude milk supply from the possible causes of the disease, one firm of wholesale vendors, supplying retail vendors in the district, practically refusing to tell him the source of their supplies. He recommended that the attention of the Local Government Board and the County Council should be directed to the necessity for milk contractors being compelled to declare the sources from which they receive their milk, and the Vestry of Plumstead in a letter to the Council endorsed this view. In his annual report he writes that he is " still inclined to suspect that milk infection gave a fresh impetus to the prevalence already existing at the commencement of 1899, as was also the case eight years ago," and that the cause of the excessive prevalence during the year " is probably to be looked for in the milk supply, and the opportunities for infection afforded by the large Board schools." The occurrence is discussed of " return cases," i.e., cases occurring in houses shortly after the return home of a previous case treated in hospital. In Paddington there were nine such cases, and the medical officer of health, Dr. Reginald Dudfield, states that in five cases the child who was first attacked suffered from discharge from the nose, sore or crack in the nostril or enlarged glands. The medical officer of health of Kensington, Dr. T. Orme Dudfield, reports the occurrence of four cases of scarlet fever, following the return from hospital of an antecedent case, a girl, who had been in the hospital for fourteen weeks. She returned in good health, except that she had a nasal discharge. In Falliam ten, in Westminster several, and in Stoke Newington three " return " cases occurred. The medical officer of health of Newington discusses the subject, and thinks some special provision should be made for the isolation of cases having nasal discharge, and that the medical officer of health should be informed of their return home, in order that they may be watched. The medical officer of health of Plumstead reports that 14 cases occurred within less than two weeks of the return of an antecedent case, nine of which were within seven days of such return. " Eight of the returned patients had either discharge from or sores on the nose; one had sores on the face and fingers, one had a rash, and one was desquamating on thethighs." Scarlet fever and elementary schools. The relation of scarlet fever prevalence to elementary schools is discussed in the annual reports relating to the following districts— Paddington—Enquiries as to school attendance led the medical officer of health to the conclusion that there was a greater incidence of disease on Board school children than upon children attending other schools. Stoke Newington—Of 178 cases of scarlet fever, "school attendance was ascribed as the origin in 17 cases." Wandsworth (Wandsworth parish)—An outbreak of scarlatina in the Royal Patriotic School, which occurred at the end of 1898, was continued in the early part of 1899. Reference to this outbreak will be found on page 21 of my report for 1899. (Putney)—The medical officer of health gives account of an outbreak of scarlet fever affecting 55 children in the months of May, June and July. He writes, " most of the cases occurred in the Flossstreet and Sefton-street district among children attending the National school on the Lowercommon. Through information I received from private sources we were able to trace one source of infection to a child, whose skin, on examination, I found to be desquamating freely. No sort of restriction was placed on the movements of this child, who therefore mixed freely with the other children in the same district. It turned out that the child had been out of sorts about a week before, but no medical man had been called in to see her, and no precautions taken. Only a few days before she was taken ill, another child had been removed from the flat above suffering from scarlet fever." Woolwich—The medical officer of health states that "with the exception of 15 instances patients or other children in the house were in attendance at school," and he shows the number of children suffering from scarlet fever who had previously attended each of several schools. 24 Plumstead—The medical officer of health compares the incidence of scarlet fever on the scholars of several schools, and says that those attending the Ancona-road school were most affected, and after it these attending Purrett-road, Burrage-grove, Earl-street, and the Slade. "It is noteworthy that of the three neighbouring schools, Ancona-road, Plumstead-road and High-street, whereas in the first one child was affected out of every 12, at the other two, only one child out of 50, and one out of 60, respectively, were affected." As in previous reports, I have shown in diagram VIII. the number of cases of scarlet fever appearing in each weekly notification list, in relation to the mean of the year, in three age groups, 0—3, 3—13, 13 years and upwards, these age groups representing generally the pre-school age, school age and post school age. The summer holiday of the London School Board schools began in 1899, on Thursday, the 27th July, i.e., the latter part of the 30th week, and the schools re-opened on Monday, the 28th August, i.e., at the beginning of the 35th week. If the number of cases notified in the four weeks, which would be most subject to holiday influence, be compared with the number of cases notified in the four preceding and four subsequent weeks, the results shown in the following table are obtained. It will be seen that the decrease during the period of holiday influence is most marked at the school age— Scarlet fever—Notified cases, 1899. Period. Notified cases—Ages. Increase or decrease per cent. 0-3 3-13 13 and upwards. 0-3 3-13 13 and upwards. Four weeks preceding weeks of holiday influence (28th to 31st) 175 1,051 246 — — — Four weeks of holiday influence (32nd to 35th) 141 793 238 — 19.4 — 24.5 — 3.3 Four weeks following weeks of holiday influence (36th to 39th) 167 1,220 301 + 18.4 + 53.8 + 26.5 Scarlet fever, 1899—Proportion of cases and deaths in hospitals. It will be seen by reference to diagram VII. that there was in 1899 slight increase in the proportion of the cases admitted into and deaths occurring in the hospitals of the Metropolitan Asylums Board upon the proportion in the preceding year. Scarlet fever, 1899—Age and sex distribution. The following table shows the case rates, death rates and fatality of scarlet fever during the year 1899. The case rate was practically the same among males at all ages as that among females, but the death rate and the fatality were higher among males than among females. In the age-groups adopted for the purposes of the table, the greatest incidence of attack was upon both males and females of four years of age. The greatest incidence of death was upon males of three years of age and upon females of two, three and four years of age. The fatality was greatest among males under one year, and among females of one year of age. Scarlet fever,* 1899. Age-period. Males. Females. Cases. Deaths. Case mortality per cent. Bates per 100,000 living. Cases. Deaths. Case mortality per cent. Rates per 100,000 living. Cases. Deaths. Cases. Deaths. All ages. 8,564 209 2.4 398 10 9,527 198 2.1 397 8 0— 119 19 16.0 204 33 90 5 5.6 152 8 1— 296 19 6.4 567 36 314 30 9.6 597 57 2— 608 36 5.9 1,115 66 523 37 7.1 955 68 3— 855 42 4.9 1,618 79 822 34 4.1 1,520 63 4— 945 21 2.2 1,839 41 932 24 2.6 1,806 47 5— 3,286 44 1.3 1,347 18 3,782 44 1.2 1,535 18 10— 1,376 12 0.9 618 5 1,797 9 0.5 792 4 15— 582 3 0.5 273 1 545 3 0.6 230 1 20— 239 5 2.1 114 2 338 5 1.5 134 2 25— 189 6 3.2 52 2 293 6 2.0 71 1 35— 47 1 2.1 18 0 73 — - 25 — 45— 14 — — 7 — 13 1 7.7 6 0 55 and upwards. 8 1 12.5 4 1 5 — — 2 — In this table 0 indicates that the deaths were too few to give a rate of 0.5; where — is inserted no deaths occurred. * See footnote (*), page 34. Diagram Vlll. NOTIFIED CASES. Scarlet Fever, 1899. Diagram IX. — Diphtheria. Diagram X Deaths occurring in- thehospitals of the Metropol Asylums Board per cent/ of total deaths in London/ 7888 -99. Admissions to hospitals of the Metropolitan Asylums Board/ per cent of total cases notified, m London. 1830-99. 25 Diphtheria. The cases of diphtheria notified in the Administrative County of London in 1899 numbered 13,711, compared with 11,883 in 1898. The number of deaths registered from this cause in 1899 was 1,946, compared with 1,760 in 1898. The diphtheria case rates and death rates in 1899 and preceding periods are shown in the following table— Period. Death-rate per 1,000 living. Case-rate per 1,000 living. Case mortality per cent. 1861-70 0.18 —* 1871-80 0.12 —* — 1881-90 0.26 —* — 1891 0.311 1.5 22.5 1892 0.441 2.0 22.2 1893 0.741 3.2 23.3 1894 0.611 2.6 23.0 1895 0.521 2.6 20.4 1896 0.591 3.1 19.3 1897 0.501 3.0 17.0 1898 0.391 2.6 14.8 1899 0.431 3.0 14.2 The death rate in each year since 1858 in relation to the mean death rate of the period 1859-99 is shown for diphtheria and for diphtheria and croup combined in diagram IX. If the London diphtheria death rate be compared with the death rates of the following large English towns, it will be seen that in the period 1889-98 the London rate exceeded the rates of all these towns, and in 1899 exceeded the rates of all except Leeds, Sheffield and West Ham— Diphtheria—Death rates per 1,000 living. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. London 0.492 0.432 Bristol 0.14 0.10 Manchester 0.24 0.15 Nottingham 0.07 0.13 Liverpool 0.18 0.34 Bradford 0.07 0.11 Birmingham 0.22 0.29 Hull 0.12 0.12 Leeds 0.16 0.78 Salford 0.39 0.34 Sheffield 0.18 1.28 West Ham 0.47 0.61 It will be seen from the following table that the London diphtheria death rate was, in the period 1889-98, lower than the death rates of any of the undermentioned foreign cities except Paris, Brussels, Amsterdam and Rome, while in 1899 the London rate was only exceeded by the rates of Stockholm, St. Petersburg and New York. The inclusion of deaths from croup, however, in the case of several of these towns makes comparison of the death rates of little value f— Diphtheria—Death rates per 1,000 living. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. London 0.492 0.432 St. Petersburg 0.82 0.90 Paris 0.41‡ 0.13‡ Berlin 0.63 0.33 Brussels 0.12‡ 0.13‡ Vienna 0.68‡ 0.29‡ Amsterdam 0.28 0.09 Rome 0.26 0.07 Copenhagen 0.62 0.28 New York 0.81 0.45 Stockholm 0.72‡ l.08‡ In the distribution of diphtheria mortality throughout the year 1899, the southern group of districts had the highest death rate (0.55), and the western group the lowest (0.26); of the several districts. St. George, Southwark, had the highest death rate (104), and St. Martin-in-theFields the lowest (0.08). In each of the four quarters of the year the southern group of districts had the highest death rate. * The Infectious Diseases (Notification) Act only came into force in 1889. † The death rate in London from diphtheria, including deaths from croup, was 0.55 in 1889 9.3, an.d 0.45 in 1899. † Including deaths from croup. 1 See footnote (') page 3. 2 See footnote (*) page 3. [4] 26 The case rate of each district in 1891-8 and in 1899, and the death rates in 1889-98 and in 1899 are shown in the following table— Sanitary district. Cases, 1899. Case-rate per 1,000 living. Deaths, 1899. Death-rate per 1,000 living. 1891-8. 1899. 1889-98. 1899. Paddington 205 2.1 1.6 29 .44 .23 Kensington 258 1.7 1.5 43 .38 .25 Hammersmith 191 2.2 1.8 25 .49 .23 Fulham 528 2.8 4.1 59 .51 .45 Chelsea 238 2.9 2.5 26 .53 .27 St. George, Hanover-square 91 1.4 1.1 12 .27 .15 Westminster 101 1.8 1.9 10 .40 .19 St. James 37 1.7 1.7 3 .25 .14 Marylebone 196 1.8 1.4 36 .35 .26 Hampstead 116 1.8 1.4 15 .29 .19 Pancras 578 2.2 2.4 111 .47 .46 Islington 710 2.4 2.0 126 .45 .36 Stoke Newington 30 2.9 0.9 6 .50 .17 Hackney 707 3.2 89 .40 St. Giles 31 1.4 0.8 5 .33 .13 St. Martin-in-the-Fields 17 1.3 1.4 1 .36 .08 Strand 37 1.6 1.6 7 .33 .30 Holborn 62 2..8 2.1 6 .50 .20 Clerkenwell 197 3.3 3.0 28 .56 .42 St. Luke 103 2.8 2.5 10 .49 .25 London, City of 57 1.7 2.0 7 .33 .25 Shoreditch 372 2.6 3.1 65 .57 .54 Bethnal-green 345 3.9 2.7 59 76 .46 Whitechapel 202 3.1 2.5 27 .60 .33 St. George-in-the-East 104 3.7 2.1 12 .77 .25 Limehouse 132 3.0 2.3 34 .65 .58 Mile-end Old-town 373 3.2 3.3 65 .65 .58 Poplar 424 4.1 2.5 77 .60 .45 St. Saviour, Southwark 124 3.0 5.1 17 .49 .70 St. George, Southwark 447 2.6 7.4 63 .49 1.04 Newington 728 2.7 5.9 104 .49 .84 St. Olave 31 2.1 2.8 9 .34 .81 Bermondsey 543 2.4 6.3 88 .51 1.03 Rotherhithe 160 2.3 3.9 32 .48 .78 Lambeth 1,118 2.3 3.6 158 .45 .51 Battersea 609 3.2 3.5 62 .56 .36 Wandsworth 618 2.1 3.0 68 .37 .33 Camberwell 1,241 3.0 4.7 160 .52 .61 Greenwich 684 3.1 3.8 73 .52 .40 Lewisham 509 2.1 4.5 68 .32 .60 Woolwich 130 1.3 3.1 21 .33 .51 Lee 135 1.1 3.4 14 .32 .35 Plumstead 182 2.9 16 .54 .25 Port of London 10 - — — — — London 13,711 2.6 3.0 1,946 .481 .431 To enable the variations in diphtheria prevalence and mortality in the several sanitary districts of London to be better appreciated the following tables (A) and (B) have been prepared. Table (A) shows (1) the diphtheria case rates per 10,000 living in the several sanitary districts of London for each of the years 1892-9 inclusive, and (2) the comparative case rates of each district in these years, i.e., the case rates of each district in each year shown in relation to the London case rate of the game year, the London case rate being taken as 100. Table (B) shows, similarly, the comparative death rates of the several sanitary districts for each of the years 1887-99, inclusive, the London death rate for each year being taken as 100— (A) Diphtheria—Case rates per 10,000 living and comparative case rates (London rate taken as 100) in sanitary districts in each of the years 1892-9. Sanitary district. Case-rates per 10,000 living. Comparative case-rates (London caserates taken s 100). 1892. 1893. 1894 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899 Paddington 14 24 32 19 19 26 20 16 70 75 123 73 61 87 77 53 Kensington 11 22 17 22 21 19 13 15 55 69 65 85 68 63 50 50 Hammersmith 32 27 18 20 21 15 15 18 160 84 69 77 68 50 58 60 Fulham 11 24 31 36 30 32 38 41 55 75 119 138 97 107 146 137 Chelsea 21 24 25 32 50 32 28 25 105 75 96 123 161 107 108 83 St. George, Hanover- 16 16 14 12 15 15 14 11 80 50 54 46 48 50 54 37 square Westminster 26 15 13 20 20 21 24 19 130 47 50 77 65 70 92 63 1 See footnote ('1), page 3. 27 Sanitary district. Case-rates per 10,000 living. Comparative case-rates (London caserates taken as 100). 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899 St. James 12 19 18 18 16 23 19 17 60 59 69 69 52 77 73 57 Marylebone 16 29 21 16 20 16 17 14 80 91 81 62 65 53 65 47 Haropstead 19 23 13 16 26 14 17 14 95 72 50 62 84 47 65 47 Pancras 19 34 22 23 20 22 21 24 95 106 85 88 65 73 81 80 Islington 23 28 27 18 33 22 16 20 115 88 104 69 103 73 62 67 Stoke Newington 28 40 16 18 23 16 16 9 1140 125 62 69 74 53 62 30 Hackney 28 24 27 36 40 32 108 92 87 120 154 107 St. Giles 16 20 11 16 15 15 11 8 80 63 42 62 48 50 42 27 St. Martin - in - the Fields 18 19 12 14 12 11 6 14 90 59 46 54 39 37 23 47 Strand 13 32 13 17 15 17 21 16 65 100 50 65 48 57 81 53 Holborn 19 30 22 19 23 53 49 21 95 94 85 73 74 177 188 70 Clerkenwell 20 46 25 22 37 53 40 30 100 144 96 85 119 177 154 100 St. Luke 11 37 16 23 32 45 47 25 55 116 62 88 103 150 181 83 London, City of 25 19 12 13 23 21 16 20 125 59 46 50 74 70 62 67 Shoreditch 17 42 25 21 30 31 21 31 85 131 96 81 97 103 81 103 Bethnal-green 45 58 43 37 35 43 26 27 225 181 165 142 113 143 100 90 Whitechapel 35 28 24 37 44 38 23 25 175 88 92 142 142 127 88 83 St. George-in-tho-East 29 53 46 46 44 40 23 21 145 166 177 177 142 133 88 70 Limehouse 16 42 34 33 46 33 23 23 80 131 131 127 148 110 88 77 Mile-end Old-town 24 33 32 44 49 40 26 33 120 103 123 169 158 133 100 110 Poplar 29 68 41 46 41 42 28 25 145 212 158 177 132 140 108 83 St. Saviour, Southwark 16 33 34 26 32 42 47 51 80 103 131 100 103 140 181 170 St. George, Southwark 13 32 31 17 31 32 41 74 65 100 119 65 100 107 158 247 Newington 15 41 28 23 33 27 38 59 75 128 108 88 106 90 146 197 St. Olave 13 25 22 19 37 25 14 28 65 78 85 73 119 83 54 93 Bermondsey 11 27 32 14 30 33 31 63 55 84 123 54 97 110 119 210 Rotherhithe 12 27 37 36 30 21 10 39 60 84 142 133 97 70 38 130 Lambeth 19 30 22 23 23 25 27 36 95 94 85 88 74 83 104 120 Battersea 24 42 31 25 25 37 47 35 120 131 119 96 81 123 181 117 Wandsworth 16 26 20 16 16 29 30 30 80 81 77 62 52 97 115 100 Camberwell 13 21 29 36 55 46 27 47 65 66 112 138 177 153 104 157 Greenwich 11 29 33 51 47 34 31 38 55 91 127 196 152 113 119 127 Lewisham 15 23 17 13 36 23 28 45 75 72 65 50 116 77 103 150 Woolwich 4 6 12 16 24 36 26 31 20 19 46 62 77 120 100 103 Lee 15 25 12 12 19 28 41 34 75 78 46 46 61 93 158 113 Plnmstead 20 25 34 22 18 29 77 96 110 73 69 97 London 20 32 26 26 31 30 23 30 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 (B.) Diphtheria—Comparative death-rates1 (London death rate taken as 100) in sanitary districts, 1887-1899. Year 1837. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Paddington 113 213 95 103 63 52 77 125 73 86 102 123 53 Kensington 104 177 176 61 53 45 65 75 102 68 94 33 58 Hammersmith 222 135 129 155 234 168 71 80 83 83 56 54 53 Fulham 113 42 39 76 66 73 84 162 135 112 106 126 105 Chelsea 87 48 66 176 53 93 72 89 113 198 112 110 63 St. George, Hanover-square 70 181 97 48 81 75 57 39 58 51 42 31 35 Westminster 191 210 132 48 63 182 35 79 75 63 86 108 44 St.. James 48 61 21 36 88 57 77 103 33 15 26 59 33 Marylebone 43 52 61 58 56 77 88 84 48 88 66 82 60 Hampstead 96 84 34 94 59 89 71 44 37 66 44 62 44 Pancras 113 100 68 167 94 102 113 82 106 68 94 103 107 Islington 65 52 53 76 156 107 81 110 85 125 76 67 84 Stoke Newington 83 113 116 88 106 127 116 25 29 95 112 36 40 Hackney 97 75 80 124 141 93 St. Giles 239 87 111 73 94 120 75 59 65 31 38 41 30 St. Martin-in-the-Fielda 139 61 34 21 88 191 77 72 102 39 48 62 19 Strand 157 35 79 45 63 73 120 61 104 20 42 44 70 Holborn 113 45 129 158 84 118 91 103 42 64 106 187 47 Clerkenwell 109 126 95 85 131 95 153 84 98 105 146 141 98 St. Luke 117 74 79 112 88 75 147 59 92 105 102 151 58 London, City of 52 87 79 85 106 150 41 30 46 58 66 87 58 Shoreditch 96 84 147 139 166 82 148 100 90 102 128 92 126 Bethnal-green 91 132 208 267 147 207 141 169 150 97 130 123 107 Whitechapel 35 106 121 206 228 177 107 98 144 102 86 64 77 St. George-in-the-E&st 143 106 247 197 131 164 179 179 204 105 118 74 58 Limehouse 104 139 216 145 88 100 141 144 150 141 100 113 135 Mile-end Old-town 91 61 132 121 106 171 97 121 194 146 112 144 135 1 See footnote (') page 3. 28 Year 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898.  Poplar 78 84 103 127 103 107 133 105 173 103 142 133 105 St. Saviour, Southwark 126 152 116 55 128 50 87 126 98 119 96 156 163 St. George, Southwark 87 126 89 70 94 100 100 134 54 110 92 154 242 Newington 104, 52 126 82 119 75 105 84 83 98 106 151 195 St. Olave 70 103 21 94 125 55 76 41 65 129 34 69 188 Bermondsey 83 52 71 67 59 55 125 128 65 142 146 131 240 Rotherhithe 70 68 111 61 31 64 104 128 148 107 104 69 181 Lambeth 170 129 153 82 88 107 87 80 73 78 96 97 119 Battersea 83 65 61 82 144 80 143 120 110 83 126 179 84 W andsworth 148 79 42 72 91 89 74 48 36 114 113 77 Camberwell 130 94 82 67 63 75 72 128 138 171 132 85 142 Greenwich 104 71 50 85 88 70 116 126 204 132 78 62 93 Lewisham 74 152 18 64 34 61 92 62 33 149 84 74 140 Woolwich 35 26 39 36 16 23 27 56 65 125 160 118 119 Lee 100 45 37 42 25 36 72 92 56 73 86 90 81 Plumstead 109 132 71 82 34 159 157 105 119 154 78 62 58 London 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 The age distribution of the cases of diphtheria notified in the several sanitary districts of London is shown in the following table— Diphtheria—Age distribution of cases notified in London sanitary districts. Sanitary district. All ages. 0- 1- 2- 3- 4- 5- 10- 15- 20- 25- 35- 45- 55- 65- 75 and upwards. No age stated. Paddington 205 4 9 14 14 31 70 24 7 10 17 3 ... 1 ... ... 1 Kensington 258 6 17 18 33 20 62 26 25 16 14 12 4 2 1 ...... 2 Hammersmith 191 5 16 4 19 24 59 19 9 14 14 4 1 1 ...... ...... 2 Fulham 528 6 21 42 58 74 204 47 15 11 36 14 ... ... ... ... ...... Chelsea 238 5 7 19 19 19 83 35 11 11 19 4 2 1 ... ... 3 St. George, Hanoversquare 91 3 8 4 8 10 21 6 5 6 14 1 2 1 ... ... 2 Westminster 101 2 9 7 6 10 29 19 8 5 5 ... 1 ... ... ... ..... St. J ames, W estminster 37 2 3 1 4 9 9 3 3 1 1 1 ...... ... ... ...... ...... Marylebone 196 5 11 12 26 17 58 17 15 13 10 5 3 2 ... ...... 2 Hampstead 116 1 5 6 12 16 22 11 7 10 19 3 2 2 ... ... ...... St. Pancras 578 16 46 57 66 52 206 50 28 19 24 9 1 3 ... ...... 1 Islington 710 9 46 76 79 78 239 77 32 25 30 9 5 ... ... ... 5 Stoke Newington 30 2 2 2 2 9 7 ... ... 4 2 ... ... ... .... ...... Hackney 707 12 47 71 60 74 241 60 50 36 35 12 5 2 ... ... 2 St. Giles 31 1 3 2 6 3 2 6 1 2 4 1 ... ... ...... ... ... St. Martin's 17 1 3 2 2 1 3 1 ... 3 1 ... ... ... ... ... ... Strand 37 1 5 1 4 6 8 5 1 3 2 1 ... ... ... ... ... Holborn 62 1 5 5 7 3 17 8 6 3 5 ... ... ... 1 ... 1 Clerkenwell 197 7 10 12 18 21 69 23 8 7 14 4 2 ... l ...... 1 St. Luke 103 6 9 13 15 10 17 12 6 e 5 1 2 ... ... ... 1 City of London 57 ... 1 9 6 3 9 5 7 8 7 1 1 ... ... ... ... Shoreditch 372 12 32 37 39 32 108 49 28 16 13 4 2 ... ... ...... ... Bethnal-green 345 7 33 37 40 45 98 28 17 18 15 5 2 ... ... ...... ... Whitechapel 202 8 27 26 26 21 40 22 10 7 11 2 1 ... ... 1 ... St. George-in-the-East 104 2 13 10 23 13 23 6 5 4 4 ... ... 1 ... ... ... Limehouse 132 3 10 12 17 19 46 10 5 2 3 4 1 ... ... ... ... Mile-end Old-town 373 7 31 43 43 45 120 35 16 10 15 3 3 ... ... ... 2 Poplar 424 12 23 46 40 49 121 48 30 18 24 5 3 2 ... ...... 3 St. Saviour 124 3 7 7 17 7 50 20 6 2 3 2 ... ... ... ... ... St. George, Southwark 447 8 32 46 56 58 156 52 19 3 12 1 2 ...... ... ... 2 Newington 728 15 65 74 85 94 242 80 25 25 18 3 1 1 ... ... ... St. Olave 31 . • • 4 6 3 3 10 2 1 1 1 ... ... ... ... Bermondsey 543 17 48 50 61 76 176 60 25 12 11 3 2 2 ... ... ... Rotherhithe 160 6 6 12 18 16 62 16 10 6 4 1 1 ... ... ... 2 Lambeth 1,118 11 47 93 106 125 413 123 53 38 51 21 8 2 ... ... 25 Battersea 609 13 31 38 62 71 228 71 29 13 32 11 5 1 ... ... 4 Wandsworth 618 7 36 39 50 77 223 74 31 20 31 16 5 ... 2 ... 7 Camberwell 1,241 15 61 108 120 133 461 162 74 29 44 17 9 3 l ... 4 Greenwich 684 12 39 51 76 60 216 88 49 28 44 13 5 3 ... ... ... Lewisham (excluding Penare) 481 3 25 34 45 35 179 68 18 24 32 12 4 1 ... ... 1 Woolwich 130 4 10 8 18 17 37 15 8 6 6 1 ... ... ...... ...... ... Lee 135 1 4 8 6 15 34 25 11 8 17 3 3 ... ... ... ... Plumstead 182 4 5 16 21 22 56 27 11 4 7 5 3 1 ... ... ... Port of London 10 ... ... ... ... ... ... 4 6 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... London 13,683 263 872 1,178 1,436 1,516 4,536 1,546 731 502 678 219 92 32 8 1 73 In this table where is inserted no case occurred. 29 The following references to diphtheria are found in the reports of medical officers of health— Paddington.—Analysis of the cases in this district by the medical officer of health, shows that, apart from imported and " return " cases, 154 were primary cases and 17 secondary. The distribution of all the cases in the district was as follows—there were 140 houses with one case, 11 houses with two cases, 5 houses with three cases and 1 house with four cases. Islington.—Commenting on Dr. Newsholme's statement that "Diphtheria only becomes epidemic in years in which the rainfall is deficient and the epidemics are on the largest scale when three or more years of deficient rainfall immediately follow each other," Mr. Harris states that he has compared the diphtheria returns of Islington with the rainfall, and that he finds that these statements are practically borne out, and that he has noticed that if a heavy rainfall, accompanied by a low barometer, occurred during a prolonged dry period, an outbreak of diphtheria to a certainty followed. He attributes this to tho washing beneath houses of the diphtheria organisms which have multiplied in warm soil that is free from excessive moisture, and he urges the importance of the ground surrounding and beneath houses being made impervious. Shoreditch.—The medical officer of health gives account of an outbreak of throat illness among the employes of a large business establishment in the district, 80 of whom were attacked, of these eight appeared to be cases of scarlet fever, of the remaining 72, 14 wero certified by the medical men who saw them to be suffering from diphtheria. Material from the throats of 23 was sent to the Clinical Research Association, with the result that the micro-organism of diphtheria was reported to be found in seven cases and not found in 16. As to cause, some of the employes were in the habit of frequenting a milkshop from which the supply to the establishment was for some time received. Dr. Bryett ascertained that about May 1st, antecedent by about a fortnight to the occurrence of the earliest case of throat illness among the employes, a woman who served in this shop was taken ill with a sore throat, which confined her to bed for four or five days, after which she continued to serve in the shop, her throat being still sore. The drainage of this milkshop was defective. Dr. Bryett's conclusion is that " in whatever manner the infection may have been introduced in the first place, there appears to be very little reason to doubt that the prevalence of the throat illness amongst Mr. X.'s employes was due to the infection being conveyed from person to person either directly or through the medium of fomites, such as forks, spoons, cups, and other articles used in common." Poplar (Bow).—The medical officer of health has recommended that the rent limit in the by-laws for houses let in lodgings should be raised so as to make a larger number of houses subject to these by-laws. He thinks that the adoption of this course would, by improving the sanitary condition of tenement houses, tend to reduce diphtheria prevalence. Lewisham.—The medical officer of health discusses the prevalence of diphtheria in Lewisham in 1899, the number of cases of diphtheria notified having been in 1890 and successive years as follows—248, 125, 237 and 433. He found that the Lewisham-village ward and Lewisham-park ward were chiefly affected. Dr. Jolly states that in his opinion the causes are two: (1) The nearness of this part of the district to a slowly-running river, from which there must always be a considerable amount of dampness in such a low-lying neighbourhood ; (2) The condition of the combined drainage. In reference to the effect of attendance at school, he writes—" It will also be seen that out of 433 cases, only 227 were attending school at the time at which the disease was notified. This shows to some extent that school infection cannot be the main factor in the spread of the disease, although in many instances it undoubtedly assists." In some of the annual reports the occurrence of " return cases " is discussed. In Paddington there were five such cases ; in Fulham five cases ; in Shoreditch five cases ; in Battersea " many " ; in Plumstead one case. The history of one case is given by Mr. Jackson to show the occasional persistence of the infectiousness of diphtheria. A child who had suffered from diphtheria in the Fountain Fever Hospital was discharged in tho middle of August. She went to Leytonstone for a month, returning to Fulham the middle of September. Her mother contracted diphtheria, and was removed to hospital on October 2nd. The child then returned to Leytonstone, where she slept with her father, who suffered from diphtheria on October 23rd. On October 21st the child went to stay with relatives in another street in Fulham, and on November 6th her cousin developed diphtheria. Shortly after this she went to visit an uncle and aunt at Kingston-on-Thames, both of whom were attacked with diphtheria. " Several bacteriological examinations were made, and the bacillus of diphtheria was found on every occasion in the nasal secretion until the end of January, though both the throat and nose appeared perfectly healthy." In Battersea the return home of one child from hospital on the 9th February was followed by attacks among other members of her family on the 17th, 18th, 26th and 28th February, and on the 3rd March. It is interesting to note that both in the Fulham and in the Battersea case the first patient had been admitted to hospital on account of an attack of scarlet fever, and had contracted diphtheria in the hospital, suggesting that the persistency of the condition of infectiousness may have been due to the fact that the patient's throat had been previously affected by scarlatinal disease. Bacteriological examination. In a number of districts facilities are given by the sanitary authority for the bacteriological examination of material from the throats of persons suspected to be suffering from diphtheria, but the nature of whose illness was doubtful. Thus the following statements are found in the reports of medical officers of health. The Vestry of Kensington made an arrangement, which has been of great service, for this purpose with the Jenner Institute. In Fulham, material from 139 cases was examined, and the bacillus of diphtheria was found in 76. In Chelsea, the medical officer of health is empowered to send material to the Jenner Institute. In St. George, Hanover-square, material from 15 cases of diphtheria was sent to the Jenner Institute, of which six yielded the diphtheria bacillus and two the pseudo-diphtheria bacillus. In St. Pancras, material from 81 cases was examined, with the result that in 43 the bacillus was found, in 36 it was not found, and two were recorded as 30 "doubtful." In Islington, material from 97 cases was sent to the Jenner Institute; in 47 cases the results were positive, in 50 negative. In Stoke Newington, material from seven cases was examined in the laboratory of University College, the results being that the disease was considered diphtheria in three cases, and not diphtheria in four cases. In St. Giles, material from six cases was sent to the laboratory of the Conjoint Board of the Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons. The bacillus was found in three cases and not found in the others. In St. Martin-in-the-Fields material from one case was sent to the above laboratory, the result being that the disease was considered to be diphtheria. In the Strand district Mr. Cribb, the Board's bacteriologist, examined material from nine cases. " In two instances the result was doubtful, and on a second trial one case proved to be diphtheria, the other not. In the remaining cases the diphtheria organism was not found." In the Holborn district material from 109 cases was sent to the Jenner Institute, the diphtheria bacillus was isolated in 35 and the pseudo-bacillus in 13 cases; in the remaining 61 cases the bacillus could not be isolated. In Clerkenwell material was sent to the Jenner Institute. In Limehouse material from three cases was sent to the bacteriologist of the London Hospital with positive results in 2 cases, and a negative result in 1 case. In Poplar (Poplar parish) material from 48 cases was sent to the Jenner Institute; in 21 cases the bacillus of diphtheria was isolated, in five cases the pseudo-bacillus, and in 22 cases there was " no result." In Poplar (Bow parish) material from 3 cases was sent to the institute, the result being positive in 2 cases and negative in 1 case. In St. George-the-Martyr the medical officer of health recommended that facilities should be given by the vestry for bacteriological examination of material. In Lambeth material from 216 cases was sent for examination, and in 101 cases Klebs-Lceffler bacilli were found, the pseudo-bacilli of Hoffman being found in 49 others. In Wandsworth material from 29 cases was sent to tho Jenner Institute, the result being positive in 13 and negative in 16 cases. In Camberwell material from 426 cases was examined by the vestry's bacteriologist, Dr. Bousfield, the results being positive in 207, negative in 192, and doubtful in 27 cases. In Eltham material from a few cases was sent to the Jenner Institute. In Plumstead material from 15 cases was sent to the Clinical Research Society and the Jenner Institute, in two of which the result was positive, and in one the pseudo-diphtheria bacillus was found. Use of antitoxic serum. The medical officers of health of several districts state that their authorities now supply antitoxic serum to medical practitioners, so as to ensure that a supply shall be available whenever it is needed. Thus Dr. Kenwood writes that " the provision for the sale of antitoxin at the vestry's offices continues to be much appreciated "; Dr. Warry states that " this treatment is certainly finding favour with medical practitioners in this district (Hackney), to whom during the year 45 bottles were supplied from the Public Health Department." In Lambeth the vestry supplies antitoxin without charge, and Dr. Priestley states that 69 bottles were thus distributed, and that of 53 cases treated with antitoxin the results were successful in 52 cases and unsuccessful in one case. In Eltham antitoxin was supplied on ten occasions by the Lee District Board. The reduction in the case mortality of diphtheria in recent years will be seen on reference to diagram XIX. (page 50). Diphtheria and Elementary Schools. Prevalence of diphtheria in relation to school attendance is discussed in the reports of medical officers of health relating to the following districts— Paddington.—As in the case of scarlet fever the medical officer of health found that there was greater incidence of disease upon children attending board schools than upon children attending other schools, and he notes that tho incidence upon children attending other schools was in 1899 greater than in 1898: He finds this due to increase of diphtheria among the children attending three schools, St. Augustine; St. Luke, Fernliead-road ; and High School, Saltram-crescent. Kensington.—Seven cases of diphtheria occurred after the Christmas holidays among children attending the St. Barnabas and St. Philip's Associated School in Earl's-court-road, one in the boys', another in the girls', and five in the infants' department. Dr. Dudfield came to the conclusion that the first two cases were not due to school attendance, and that the others were due to infection at school or at home. Fulham.—The medical officer of health publishes a table showing the number of cases of diphtheria occurring in each month among tho pupils of the several board and primary schools. The infants' department of the Ackmar-road Board School was closed during the end of February and beginning of March for three weeks on account of the prevalence of diphtheria among the children. In October and November a class in the infants' department of the Star-road Board School was closed for nearly three weeks for a similar reason, and other children living in the same houses as children attending that class were excluded from attendance. Stoke Newington.—Dr. Kenwood writes " school attendance is either alleged by the parents or surmised by myself, on good grounds, to be the cause of three attacks during the year and to be responsible for 9'7 per cent, of the cases as compared with 5'7 per cent, in the preceding year." Mile-end Old-tou:n.—Dr. Taylor states that, although cases of diphtheria occurred in all parts of the district, " a number of children who had been attending two particular schools were reported to be suffering from the disease." The cases related to one school were fatal in large proportions, and the drainage and ventilation of the school was found to be in satisfactory condition, but later, on taking up the floor boards, " a large amount of filth was found, including the skeleton of a cat, a dead rat and a quantity of orange peel and fermenting rubbish. The whole of this was of course removed and the floor concreted; from that time the disease ceased." Children who were found to be ailing or who had " suspicious-looking throats " were excluded from attendance. 31 St. George-the-Martyr.—In connection with the increase in the prevalence of diphtheria in this district the medical officer of health recommends the frequent and systematic inspection of schools, inasmuch as " in such places early and undetected cases of diphtheria, in the sore-throat stage, are to be found under circumstances that afford every opportunity for the spread of infection." Lambeth.—Referring to an outbreak of diphtheria among the children attending a school in the Ferndale-road, and which necessitated the closing of the school, the medical officer of health states that " in very many cases pseudo-bacilli were isolated from the throats of the scholars, servants and teachers, whilst in three cases the true Klebs-Lceffier bacilli were isolated, pointing apparently to the two kinds of bacilli being related in some way." In examining the slimy deposits in the waste pipes of the lavatory basins in the dormatories and in the outlets of the open rectangular trough underneath the basins a pure culture of the Klebs-Loeffler bacillus was obtained. These troughs were subsequently removed. The outbreak had been preceded for some months by the occurrence of cases of throat illness in the school. Battersea.—An outbreak of diphtheria occurred in the early part of the year, due to the attendance at infants' department of the Plough-road Board School of a child whilst suffering from an unrecognized attack of diphtheria. This child's illness was not discovered until two other members of the family were attacked and a medical man was called in. Thirty cases of diphtheria were found to be more or less associated with this case. Dr. Kemp3ter states that the infants' department was closed on the 10th February and that "during the four weeks preceding the closing of the infants' department, 34 cases had occurred in No. 6 district, being equal to 8'5 per week, whereas during the first week after the school closure, a portion of which would be within the incubation period and consequently the full effects of the measure would not be experienced, the number was reduced to six cases for the week, and during the second week one case only, the improvement being subsequently maintained." Wandsworth (Clapham).—In discussing the cause of diphtheria, as an instance of the influence of direct infection, Dr. Field refers to a series of cases occurring among children attending the NewPark-road Board School, a new school with all modern improvements. Fifteen cases occurred in a period of time extending from early in February to Easter. Many of the children were nursed at home, and as a result other members of the families were attacked, 13 other cases occurring, or 28 in all. Dr. Field says that " It is most probable that there was some child or children going about in an infectious condition possibly to school during February and March, and that other children were directly infected. The outbreak came to an end with the Easter holiday, only one case being reported after the re-assembling of the school. In a special report he discusses the prevalence of diphtheria in Hydethorpe-road, in 17 houses of which 25 cases of diphtheria occurred in a period extending from November, 1898, to November, 1899. Of these 25 cases, 13 were under 5 years of age, 11 from 5 to 10 years, and one above 10 years of age. Most of the children in the road go to the Cavendishroad School, and 12 other diphtheria case3 occurred after August among children attending this school from adjacent parts of Streatham and Clapham other than Hydethorpe-road. Dr. Field writes " Seeing that so large a proportion of the cases were of infants below school age, and the absence of any marked association of the sufferers in classes, and the small total number, it does not appear that school attendance has had any marked effect in spreading diphtheria." He comments on the fact that the houses in this road were newly built, and were occupied before they were dry. Camberivell.—Account is given by tho medical officer of health of the prevalence of diphtheria among the infants and girls attending tho Heber-road Board School, and affecting 27 in all. From the 2nd October to the 1st November among families invaded by diphtheria the first member attacked was in 20 instances attending the infants' department, and in seven instances was attending the girls' school. Dr. Stevens arranged for the bacteriological examination of material from the throats of five children taken at random from two classes where the disease, judging from the notifications received, was most prevalent at the time. Examination of this material by Dr. Bousfield showed that " in one case diphtheria bacilli were present, in another specimen their presence was doubtful, while in three the specific micro-organisms were not discovered." The infants' department was closed on Dr. Stevens' recommendation, and he states that in the three weeks following the closing of the department only seven primary cases were notified among the children attending the school, one the boys' department, two the girls, and four the infants' department, three of whom were probably infected before the infants' department was closed. This result he attributes to " the destruction of the focus of infection by the closure of the school." Woolwich.—There was increase in the number of cases notified in Woolwich during 1899, due, the medical officer of health state3, to two outbreaks, one on the" Warspite " training ship in August and the other among children attending Elizabeth-street Board School, North Woolwich. The outbreak on the Warspite was found by the port medical officer of health to be due to a case of diphtheria introduced into the ship ; the origin of the cases in connection with the Elizabeth-street school could not be traced. Dr. W. R. Smith writes—" The children affected, with two or three exceptions, all lived in one particular area, one street having four cases. It was found on enquiry that the children were in many instances in the habit of playing together, and in some cases of visiting each others houses. The large room of the infants' department, where most of the children were, was closed and thoroughly disinfected." Eltham.—The medical officer of health refers to a small outbreak in which the cases " were among scholars at the Board School or among those who had been in immediate contact with them." For the purpose of ascertaining whether as in previous years there was decrease of diphtheria prevalence among children of school age during the summer holiday, diagram XI. has been prepared. The summer holiday of the schools of the London School Board began on Thursday, the 27th July, i.e., the latter part of the 30th week, and the schools re-opened on Monday the 28th August, i.e., the beginning of the 35th week. If the number of cases in the four weeks preceding 32 and four weeks subsequent to the weeks most subject to holiday influence be compared, the following results are obtained for the age periods of 0—3, 3—13, and 13 years and upwards. It will be seen that the decrease in the number of cases notified during the period of holiday influence, and the increase in the subsequent period is most marked at the school age. Diphtheria—Notified cases, 1899. Period. Notified cases—Ages. Increase or decrease per cent. 0—3. 3—13. 13 and upwards. 0—3. 3—13. 13 and upwards. Four weeks preceding weeks of holiday influence (28th to 31st) 169 804 269 — — — Four weeks of holiday influence (32nd to 35th) 182 525 237 + 7-7 —34 7 —11 9 Four weeks following weeks of holiday influence (36th to 39th)... 165 759 270 - 9-3 +44(5 + 13-9 It is interesting to observe that the relative incidence of attack upon London children, 3-13 years, continues to increase. This increase has been manifested in each year for a considerable period, the percentage in successive years being as follows— Number of children, atred 3-13, per cent, of total cases of diphtheria at all aces notified. 1892 50.9 1896 60.3 1893 51.0 1897 60.5 1894 57.8 1898 61.8 1895 57.8 1899 62.9 These figures will need further consideration when the age distribution of the population is known as the result of the census of 1901, but in the meantime it is interesting to observe that although there has been increase of incidence upon the school age in each successive year in London as a whole, this increase has not been manifested in the same way in each district. This will be seen from the following table relating to the years 1897, 1898 and 1899. Diphtheria—Cases occurring at ages 3-13 per cent, of total notified eases. Sanitary district. 1897. 1898. 1899. Sanitary district. 1897. 1898. 1899. Paddington 63.8 57.3 63.2 Whitechapel 51.8 52.4 50.0 Kensington 61.8 54.5 51.6 St. George - in - the-. East 66.5 51.3 60.6 Hammersmith 52.7 61.6 61.9 Fulham 64.9 68.7 70.6 Limehouse 59.9 67.2 68.9 Chelsea 61.5 65. 9 60.4 Mile.end Old.town 625 58.8 63.3 St. George, Hanover. square 63.2 50.5 48.3 Poplar 630 64.6 57.7 St. Saviour, Southwark 55.8 61.7 72.6 Westminster 59.5 61.4 54.5 St. James 54.0 50.0 64.9 St. George, Southwark 66.3 56.7 68.8 Marylebone 50.7 53.6 57.2 Hampstead 55.1 52.6 50.0 Newington 58.6 65.6 65.5 Pancras 58.7 61.0 60.1 St. Olave 57.1 68.7 51.6 Islington 63.4 60.4 64.8 Bermondsey 61.9 68.4 65.6 Stoke Newington 59.3 55.6 66.7 Rotherhithe 61.6 47.6 68.4 Hackney 63.2 66.2 59.7 Lambeth 60.2 67.9 67.5 St. Giles 61.8 60.0 45.2 Battersea 59.1 67.0 68.3 St. Martin - in - the Fields- 35.7 75.0 41.2 Wandsworth 62.9 63.4 65.8 Camberwell 63.7 61.0 66.3 Strand 58.5 55.1 59.5 Greenwich 54.6 56.9 59.9 Holborn 61.6 55.2 49.2 Lewisham (excluding Penge) 57.8 60.5 63.7 Clerkenwell 65.9 63.4 64.3 St. Luke 60.2 55.7 50.0 Woolwich 68.2 70.6 64.6 London, City of 55.6 35.6 38.6 Lee 56.4 60.5 51.1 Shoreditch 56.7 53.3 56.7 Plumstead 61.5 61.3 66.5 Bethnal.green 52.7 58..8 57.7 London 60..5 61.8 62.9 Apart from the question of prevalence of diphtheria an increasing incidence of the disease on the school age indicates need for watchfulness, for such increase of incidence may be due to school attendance without being accompanied by notable prevalence of notified cases of the disease. Thus, cases due to infection in a particular school may be notified with considerable periods of time between them, these periods being so long as to obscure the part the school is playing in the spread of the disease. The connection between the notified cases is probably maintained by many unrecognised 33 cases, although the actual number of notified cases may be small. The fact, however, that the disease is contracted at school considerably modifies the age incidence of the cases, although their fewness may obscure the cause. This change in the age incidence may, however, be followed by a definite outbreak undeniably due to infection at school, and of considerable magnitude. Tho behaviour of diphtheria in recent years in Lewisham is illustrative of the way in which there may be, in successive years, with decreasing prevalence, increase of incidence of disease upon children of the school age manifested finally in a recognised outbreak of the disease among tho children of a particular school. Thus the number of cases aged 3.13 years per cent, of total cases notified in Lewisham in successive years has been as follows— Lewisham (excluding Penge), notified cases of diphtheria. Years. No of easel (All ages.) No of cases, aged 3-13 years. Per dent, of total cases. 1893 207 53.7 1894 153 56.9 1895 128 59.8 1896 365 64.0 1897 219 57.8 1898 283 60.5 1899 481 63.7 The increasing incidence of the disease upon children of school age from 1893-96 is conspicuous, although the prevalence was in the first three years diminishing, and certainly no question of nomenclature can be held responsible for this alteration in age incidence. It will be recollected that this increasing incidence upon the school age culminated in 1896 in a disastrous outbreak of diphtheria, which Dr. Hamer, who enquired into the matter on behalf of the London County Council, conclusively showed to be due to infection in the Lewisham-bridge Board School and the St. Stephen's National School. The circumstance that appeared to be principally operative in bringing this outbreak to an end was the detention of children from school by their parents. The disease in the subsequent year became less prevalent, and the incidence upon the school age less marked ; but in the two most recent years, both prevalence and incidence on the school age have increased. The question arises whether infection at school is again responsible for the large prevalence of 1899. In that year there was especial prevalence of this disease in two contiguous areas* marked AC and AG3 on the map of the London School Board (West Greenwich division), and examination of the weekly notification returns issued by tho Metropolitan Asylums Board supplies the following figures— The number of cases notified in each successive four weeks in these areas, from the 20th to the 47th week inclusive, was 12, 43, 24, 5, 13, 23 and 23. The smallest number of cases (5) occurred in the four weeks (32nd to 35th) in which the effect of the closing of the schools for the summer holiday would be most felt. The prevalence of the disease among the two sexes of the age 3-13 is also deserving of notice, thus, from the 25th to the 31st week the number of boys of this age attacked was 12, the number of girls 29. During the weeks of holiday influence, i.e., from the 32nd to the 35th weeks inclusive boys escaped, but three girls were attacked; from the 36th to the 41st weeks inclusive only two cases occurred among boys although eight girls were attacked, and from that time to the end of the year 17 boys and 16 girls were attacked. A local prevalence of diphtheria, which diminishes in material degree during the period of school holiday influence, and in which girls are attacked at one period and boys at another, undoubtedly raises question whether attendance at school is not an important factor in the spread of the disease. Diphtheria—Proportion of cases and deaths in hospital. Diagram X., (page 25), shows the proportion of London cases of diphtheria admitted into the hospitals of the Metropolitan Asylums Board during each of the years 1890-99 inclusive, and the proportion of deaths from this disease which occurred in these institutions during each of the years 1888-99. It will be seen that these proportions were greater in 1899 than in any previous year. Diphtheria—Age and sex distribution. The following table shows the cases, deaths, case rates, death rates, and fatality of diphtheria at the several ages and for each sex in London in 1899. As in preceding years, the incidence of attack at " all ages " on females was greater than on males, but the incidence of death at " all ages " was the same on both sexes, the fatality of males being greater than that of females. In the age groups adopted for the purposes of this table, the incidence of attack was greatest upon males and females of four years of age and the incidence of death was greatest upon males and females of one year of age. The greatest fatality occurred among males and females during the first year of life. * These areas include a small portion of the parih of Lee. [5] 34 Diphtheria* 1899. Age-period. Male«. Females. Ca*ei. Deaths. Case mortality per cent. Rates per 100,000 living. Cases. Deaths. Case mortality per ccnt. Rates per 100,000 living. Cases. Deaths. Cases. Deaths. All ages. 6,211 930 15.0 289 43 7,472 1,036 13.9 312 43 0— 143 68 47.6 246 117 122 59 48.4 206 100 1— 446 157 35.2 855 301 430 167 38.8 817 317 2— 637 154 24.2 1,168 282 547 142 26.0 999 259 3— 714 149 20.9 1,351 282 730 158 21.6 1,350 292 4— 756 124 16.4 1,471 241 768 146 19.0 1,488 283 5— 2,051 222 10.8 841 91 2,508 294 11.7 1,018 119 10— 667 41 6.1 300 18 887 38 4.3 391 17 15— 300 3 1.0 141 1 435 9 2.1 184 4 20— 189 — — 90 — 317 4 1.3 125 2 25— 201 5 2.5 56 1 482 7 1.5 116 2 35— . 73 1 1.4 27 0 147 2 1.4 50 1 45— 20 5 25.0 11 3 72 2 2.8 34 I 55 and upwards. 14 1 7.1 8 1 27 8 29.6 11 3 In this table 0 indicates that the deaths were too few to give a rate of 0*5 ; where — is inserted no deaths occurred. Whooping-cough. The deaths from whooping cough in the Administrative County of London in 1899 numbered 1,728, compared with 2,160 in 1898. The death rates from this disease in 1899 and preceding periods were as follows— Wh ooping.cough. Period. Death rate per 1,000 living. Period. Death rate per 1,000 living. 1851-60 0.88 1894 0.491 1861-70 0.88 1895 0.341 1871-80 0.81 1896 0.651 1881-90 0.69 1897 0.411 1891 0.681 1898 0.48' 1892 0.581 1899 0.381 1893 0.541 The death rate in each year in relation to the mean death rate of the period 1841-99 is shown in diagram XII. It will be seen from the following table that the London death rate from whooping cough exceeded the death rates of all the undermentioned towns except Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham and Salford in 1889-98, and in 1899 exceeded the rates of all except Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Hull and Salford. Whooping-cough—Death rates per 1,000 living. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. London 0.542 0.382 Bristol 0.47 0.37 Manchester 0.56 0.42 Nottingham 0.42 0.23 Liverpool 0.61 0.49 Bradford 0.44 0.28 Birmingham 0.55 0.32 Hull 0.38 0.62 Leeds 0.41 0.38 Salford 0.70 0.46 Sheffield 0.53 0.16 West Ham 0.51 0.34 * In the preparation of this table, the question whether the persors, who were attacked and who died, belonged to London is disregarded, the percentage being calculated on the number of cases notified in London, and the number of deaths cccurring in London and the institutions belonging to London. Inasmuch as the age of the patient is not in all eases recorded in the notification certificate it has been necessary to distribute such cases among the various ages proportionately. ' See footnote ^'), page 3. 3 See footnote (a), page 3. 35 The following table shows that the London whooping cough death rate exceeded the death rates of all the undermentioned foreign towns both in the period 1889-98 and in the year 1899— Whooping-cough—Death rates per 1,000 living. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. London 0.541 0.381 St. Petersburg 0.23 0.27 Paris 0.16 0.16 Berlin. 0.28 0.33 Brussels 0.18 0.10 Vienna 0.09 0.12 Amsterdam 0.34 0.21 Rome .. 0.07 0.09 Copenhagen 0.41 0.28 New York 0.23 0.15 Stockholm 0.23 0.13 In the distribution of the disease during the year 1899 the rate of mortality was highest in the eastern group of districts (0'45) and lowest in the central group (0'27). Of the several sanitary districts Newington had the highest death rate (0'84) and St. Martin-in-the-Fields, Strand, and St. Olave the lowest, no deaths from this disease being registered in these districts. During the first quarter of the year the mortality was highest in the western group of districts and lowest in the central group; during the second quarter the rate of mortality was highest in the eastern Croup and lowest in the central group; during the third quarter the rate of mortality was highest in the eastern group and lowest in the western group; and during the fourth quarter the rate of mortality was again highest in the eastern group and lowest in the somhern group. The death rate of each sanitary district m 1899 and the preceding ten years is shown, in the following table— Sanitary district. Deaths in 1899. Death rate per 1,000 living. Sanitary district. Deaths in 1899. Death rate per 1,000 living. 1889-98. 1899. 1889-98. 1899. Paddington 43 .38 .33 Shoreditch 47 .79 .39 Kensington 61 .35 .35 Bethnal-green 45 .72 .35 Hammersmith 46 .49 .42 Whitechapel 24 .42 .30 Fulham 54 .61 .41 St. George-in-the-East 25 .57 .52 Chelsea 71 .51 .74 Limehouse 31 .90 .53 St. George, Hanoversquare 14 .28 .17 Mile-eud Old-town Poplar 48 106 .62 .68 .43 .62 Westminster 5 .46 .10 St. Saviour, Southwark 10 .65 .41 St. James 6 .33 .28 St. George, Southwark 32 .80 .53 Marylebone 34 .41 .24 Newington 104 .69 .84 Hampstead 11 .29 .14 St. Olave — .70 — Pancras 142 .52 .59 Bermondsey 29 .68 .34 Islington 170 .54 .49 Rotherhithe 14 .62 .34 Stoke Newington 4 .49 .11 Lambeth 130 .54 .42 Hackney 48 .22 Battersea 52 .61 .30 St. Giles 1 .44 .3 Wandsworth 65 .43 .31 St. Martin - in - the - .34 — Camberwell 86 .55 .33 Fields Greenwich 53 .57 .29 Strand — .43 — Lewisham 23 .37 .20 Holborn 13 .63 .44 Woolwich 13 .45 .31 Clerkenwell 30 .67 .46 Lee 9 .33 .22 St. Luke 14 .64 .34 Plumstead 10 .46 16 London, City of 5 .22 .18 London 1.728 542 .382 Typhus. The deaths from typhus in the Administrative County of London during the year 1899 numbered two. The death rates from this disease in 1899 and previous periods are as follows— Typhus—death rates per 1,000 living. Period. Death-rate per 1,000 living. Period. Death-rate per 1,000 living. 1871-80 .055 1895 .0012 1881-90 .008 1896 .0012 1891 .0022 1897 .0002 1892 .0032 1898 .0012 1893 .0012 1899 .0002 1894 .0012 1 See footnote (2), page 3. 2 See footnote (1), page 3. 36 The death rate in each year since 18G8 in relation to the mean death rate of the period 1869-99 is shown in diagram Xlil. The number of persons certified during the year to be suffering from typhus was 14. These cases occurred in the following districts— Paddington 1 Bermondsey 3 Kensington 1 Rotherhithe 1 Hammersmith 1 Lambeth 1 Whitechapel 4 Camberwell 1 St. George, Southwark 1 The actual occurrences of typhus daring the year appear to be as follows— A man, aged 24, a carman, living in a common lodging-house in Rotherhithe, suffered from typhus in January and was removed to St. Olave's Infirmary, and subsequently to the fever hospital where he died. The source of infection could not be discovered. On October 8th, a boy, S., aged 16, was admitted into the London Hospital; on October 14th, he was certified to be suffering from enteric fever and was removed to the Eastern Hospital, where his disease was diagnosed as typhus. The boy was a tailors' presser, did not work under unhealthy conditions, and no source of infection could be discovered. On October 18th, a tailor. H. J., aged 42, who had just come from Germany, was admitted into the London Hospital, and was removed on November 1st to the South-Eastern Hospital, the disease having been recognised as typhus. No source of infection could be discovered. In November two sisters—M. C, aged 12, S. C., aged 16—were removed to the London Hospital from Dorset-street, Whitechapel, the former, who was a school girl, on November 24th, the latter, who was employed in charing, on November 30th. These persons were certified to be suffering from enteric fever, and both were removed to different hospitals of the Metropolitan Asylums Board, where the elder girl's illness was recognised to be typhus, and the younger girl's illness, which was less definite, was no doubt the same. No source of infection could be discovered. The remaining cases occurred in Bermondsey, St. George-the-Martyr, and Newington, and the following account is in the main based upon information obtained from Dr. Dixon of Bermondsey and Dr. Waldo of St. George-the-Martyr. In January a man, R. C. W., employed in an asbestos factory, was removed to King's College Hospital, where he died. The cause of his death was at the time believed to be enteritis, due to some form of poisoning, possibly ptomaine. His body was taken to his home in Minto-street, where it; remained unburied for a week, the coffin not being screwed down. On the 12th February his brother, F. J. W., aged 16, was admitted into Guy's Hospital, where he was thought to be suffering from enteric fever. On the loth February a boy lodger, J. H. F., in the house in Minto-street, was removed to Guy's Hospital, where his illness was also thought to be enteric fever. On the 14th February, a married woman, M. W., aged 51, mother of R. C. W. and F. J. W., was removed to the Park Hospital on a certificate that she was suffering from enteric fever. On the 18th February, a man, R. W., aged 51, husband of M. W. and father of R. C. W. and F. J. W., was certified in Guy's Hospital to be suffering from enteric fever. He died on the 22nd February, and no lesion of the intestine being found post mortem, his illness was considered to be typhus. On the 19tli February, a married woman, R. B., daughter of R. W., was removed to Guy's Hospital from a house in Southwark-bridge-road. Her illness was recognised to be typhus, and she was transferred on the 28rd February to the South-Eastern Hospital. On the 21st February, a boy, G. W., aged 11, brother to R. C. W., was admitted into St. Olave's Union Infirmary and certified on the 7th March to be suffering from typhus. This boy was removed from a married sister's house (Mrs. A. K.), in Weston-street, Bermondsey, where he was temporarily staying during the illness of his family. On the 4th March, a girl, A. W., aged 14, sister of R. C. W., who had been lodging in another house in Minto-street, and had taken lier meals in her sister's (Mrs. A. K.) house in Weston-street, was admitted into Guy's Hospital, and was certified to be suSering from typhus on March 5. On the 25th March a married woman, A. K., daughter of M. W, was removed from a house in Weston-street, to the South-Eastern Hospital, her illness being typhus. In addition to the fact that the brother, G. W., had stayed with her for some period up to bis removal to hospital when suffering from typhus, one other member of the family A. W. had been taking meals with her. It is now necessary to revert to tho case of the boy J. II. F., admitted into Guy's Hospital on the 13th February. Dr. Waldo ascertained that this boy had been left by his mother, Mrs. F., at the house in Minto-street, on the 17th December, 1898, to remain there during her absence in Guy's Hospital to which she was admitted on the 18th December, her illness being believed at the time to be enteric fever. She also lived in Minto-street but in a different house from the W. family. The only conclusion that can be arrived at is that she was suffering from typhus at the time of her visit to tho W.'s house, and that her association with that family led to their infection with typhus. Tho question is when did Mrs. F. become infected ? Enquiry by Dr. Waldo showed a probable connection between her illness and that of a brushmaker living in Walker-street, St. George, Southwark, who, in October, 1898, was recognised to be suffering from typhus in the out-patient room of Guy's Hospital. I gave an account of this case in my annual report for that year. This man, K., lived with his parents, two brothers and a sister, and when he was removed to hospital all the family were admitted to the vestry's reception house except his father who went to stay with a married son living in Minto-street in the same house as Mrs. F. This married son removed in December into Tabard-street, Newington, where, on the 13th January, be was attacked with some illness, and removed in a delirious condition to the Newington workhouse where he died on the 18th January. It is Etated that his wife was taken ill about the same time and died at home on the 14th January. 37 I do not think there can be any reasonable doubt that all these people suffsred from typhus, and there must have been ample opportunity for the communication of infectious disease from one to another among persons so intimately related. The occurrence of the series of cases of typhus in Bermondsey, of which account is given above, makes it necessary that I should revert to the past behaviour of typhus in this part of London during the time which, as county medical officer of health, I have had an opportunity of observing it. It will be convenient for this purpose to refer to the several reports I have presented on this subject. In reference to the year 1889, I reported as follows— In the month of October of 1889, I was asked by the medical officer of health of St. Olave to see with him some cases of illness in a narrow ill-ventilated court in that district called Sard's-rents. This court was inhabited by a number of poor people who were engaged in the pulling out of hair from skins. A disease characterised by pneumonic symptoms and delirium had been prevalent among these people since January 1st, 1888. One had been removed in March, 1889, to a public institution, and died there, the death being registered as due to pneumonia. Another had in August been removed to a general hospital, where he died, the death being recorded as due to bronchitis and emphysema. In October, when my attention was directed to the occurrence, I saw in the first instance only certain children who were recovering, and no precise opinion could be formed as to the nature of the illness. A few days later other persons sickened and were carefully examined by Dr. Wightwick, the medical officer of health, and myself. Such examination taught us that the disease was not pneumonia, and although we could discover no eruption on the skin of the patients, their general appearance, and indeed the behaviour of the disease in the court generally, raised suspicion that it would eventually prove to be typhus. I visited the general hospital referred to, and was permitted to see the recorded history of the man who had died in that institution, and this impression being strengthened, arrangements were made for the removal of subsequent cases to hospital, where the disease was definitely recognised as typhus. From that time every person subsequently attacked in Sard's-rents was removed to hospital and the houses disinfected. The outbreak speedily terminated in that locality, and later some of the houses were demolished under Torrens' Act. Dr. Wightwick estimates that from 30 to 50 persons altogether, many of whom were children, must have been attacked in Sard's-rents, and certainly 10 people were attacked subsequent to my first visit. In November the disease appeared in Yauban-street, Bermondsey, and in that month and the following, eight cases occurred in two houses. Inquiry into possible relation between the Vauban-street and Sard's-rents led to the fact being ascertained that the first of the Vauban-street people who suffered from this disease was a relative of some of the Sard's-rents people, and had nursed them during their illness. The introduction of the disease into Yauban-street in 1889 was followed by some extension of the disease in 1890, but its main prevalence was in the neighbourhood of Dockhead. Coneerning the cases of typhus in Bermondsey in 1890, I thus reported— One case occurred in January, in Yauban-street, Bermondsey, doubtless belonging to the group already mentioned. Prom March to June there was a localised outbreak in the same parish, the first of a series being a boy living in Gedling-street, Dockhead, who was removed to hospital on the 29th March. Careful inquiry was made as to the source of infection, and particularly as to whether he had been in relation with any of the Sard's-rents or Vauban-street cases, but without any evidence being obtained as to this having taken place. The boy's illness had been previously certified to be enteric fever. It was followed a month later by a second case in the same house, a girl whose illness was certified to be enteric fever, but which proved to be typhus. This girl had frequent communication with a boy and girl in another house in the same street, and a month after her removal to hospital they were also removed. Their illness was certified to be typhoid, but was afterwards recognized as typhus. Three weeks later a third member of this last family was certified to be suffering from typhoid fever, but on removal to hospital was found to have typhus, and two days later a fourth member of the family was certified to have typhus, the first of this series whose disease was recognized in the first instance. All were removed to hospital. Besides these, while this outbreak in Gedling-street was in progress, two young children, members of the same family as that last mentioned, were removed to the St. Olave's workhouse, where they subsequently developed typhus. The outbreak ended here so far as can be known, for only one other case, a doubtful one not related to the preceding, occurred in Bermondsey, in another street, during December. The only record I have of typhus in Bermondsey in 1891 suggests a fresh importation from Rotherhithe. The facts as to this occurrence I stated as follows— In October four children in Bermondsey were admitted into a hospital of the Metropolitan Asylums Board suffering from typhus, their illness had been certified to be scarlet fever. An elder sister of these children, I learn from Dr. Dixon, of Bermondsey, had been staying in a house in Rotherhithe from which a lad had, in October, been removed to a general hospital. The nature of the youth's illness was not very obvious, and it was first thought he might be suffering from enteric fever, but later his symptoms raised question as to the accuracy of this view. Information I have obtained from this hospital makes it likely that the lad's illness was typhus. This is the most Jprobable cause of the infection of this family. Inquiry into this case was made by Dr. Shaw of Itotherhithe, but no information has been obtained as to how the lad was infected. Two cases, however, occurred in the neighbouring district of St. George-the-Martyr. A carman and his son, resident in a house in that district, were certified in August, 1891, to be suffering from scarlet fever. They were removed to hospital, where their illness was recognised to be typhus. During 1892 there was no evidence of typhus existing in Bermondsey, but two women, the nature of whose illness was not recognised until after their removal to hospital, were found to be suffering from typhus in different houses in Rotherhithe. Later, a second case of this disease was removed from each of these houses, and later still two other cases from these houses and two other cases from another house in the same street. In December of that year a rag sorter in Bermondsey was proved to be suffering from the same disease. In 1893 no case of typhus is known to have occurred in any of the districts mentioned, but in 1894 an ice cream vendor suffered from this disease in Bermondsey, and three cases occurred in Rotherhithe, a man, who was a casual labourer, and his son in October, and a boy in December, who lived in the same street as the other two cases. In 1895 and 1896 these districts were, so far as is known, free from typhus, and in 1897 only one case was recorded, that of a boy in Bermondsey who 33 was removed to the South-Eastern Fever Hospital on a certificate that he was suffering from enteric fever, but whose disease was there recognised to be typhus. In 1898 only two cases were known to have occurred in these districts, both of them in St. George-the-Martyr. The first of these was a woman who had assisted in the nursing of a family suffering from typhus in Kensington, the other a brushmaker, the first of a series of cases of which account has already been given. In 1899 occurred the series of cases mentioned above. The frequent recurrence of cases of typhus in this part of London is therefore noteworthy, and the history of the cases which have come to light shows how readily the disease is overlooked. London has for many years been comparatively free from this disease, but this fact does not negative the possibility that under favourable conditions it might again become prevalent. It is therefore very important that medical men, having under their observation cases of ill-defined fever in these districts, should have in their minds the possibility that their patients are suffering from typhus. There is much probability that the disease has been maintained, in the group of districts especially referred to, by the occurrence of unrecognised cases. In typhus, as in other diseases, the severity of attack may differ very greatly, and may in children not be indicated by more than mere poorliness, the nature of their malady only being recognised by its concurrence with well-recognised cases of typhus. The notable reduction in the prevalence of typhus during recent years is in all probability largely due to natural causes which have not only reduced the actual numbar of cases occurring, but have also reduced the virulence of the disease. There is therefore no improbability in the hypothesis that the disease has been maintained in these districts by persons suffering from so mild a form of typhus that it is impossible to recognise the malady, the cases coming to light being a few of the total number who are suffering from more severe attacks. If natural causes may reduce severity of disease, they may also increase it, and in that event there is no certainty that there will not eventually be much greater prevalence of typhus than has been experienced in late years. The amount of such prevalence will then largely depend upon the extent to which the population is well housed and well fed. Enteric Fever. The number of cases of enteric fever notified in the Administrative County of London during 1899 (52 weeks) was 4,467, compared with 3,031 in 1898; the number of deaths from this disease belonging to the administrative county was 759, compared with 554 in 1898. The rates per 1,000 living in 1899 and preceding periods are as follows— Enteric fever. Period. Death rate per 1,000 living. Case rate per 1,000 living. Case mortality per cent. 1871-80 0.24 .1.881-90 0.19 1891 0.121 0.8 15.6 1892 0.101 0.6 17.2 1893 0.161 0.9 18.4 1894 0.141 0.8 18.1 1895 0.141 0.8 17.0 1896 0.121 0.7 17.6 1897 0.13' 0.7 18.0 1898 0.12* 0.7 18.3 1899 0.171 1.0 17.0 The death rate in each year since 1868 in relation, to the mean death rate of the period 1869-99 is shown in diagram XIV. In the distribution of enteric fever mortality throughout the year the central and eastern groups of districts were above, and the western, northern and southern groups below the average of London. Of the several districts the City had the highest death rate (0.43) and St. Saviour the lowest (0'04). During the first quarter of the year the central group of districts had the highest and the southern group the lowest rate of mortality; during the second quarter the central group again had the highest death rate and the northern group the lowest; during the third quarter the eastern group of districts had the highest death rate and the central group the lowest; and during the fourth quarter the eastern group again had the highest death rate and the western group the lowest ; in this quarter the death rate in each of the groups of districts was considerably in excess of the average for the year. * The Infections Diseaf s (Notification) Act only came into force in 1889. 1 See footnote ('), page 3. 39 The case rates of each sanitary district in 1891-8 and in 1899 and the death rates in 1899 and the preceding ten years are shown in the following table— Sanitary district. Cases, 1899. Case rate per 1,000 living. Deaths, 1899. Death rate per 1,000 living. 1891-98. 1899. 1889-98. 1899. Paddington 98 .5 .8 9 .12 .07 Kensington 111 .6 .6 24 .10 .14 Hammersmith 115 .5 1.1 23 .11 .21 Fulham 110 .5 .8 25 .10 .19 Chelsea 64 .7 .7 18 .13 19 St. George, Hanover-square 46 .6 .6 9 .12 .11 Westminster 44 .6 .8 9 .09 .17 St. James 34 .6 1.6 3 .17 .14 Marylebone 118 .7 .8 26 .13 .19 Hampstead 45 .6 .6 4 .10 .05 Pancras 246 .8 1.0 42 .14 .17 Islington 361 .7 1.0 48 .12 14 Stoke Newington 17 1.0 .5 5 .17 .14 Hackney 268 1.2 35 .16 St. Giles 24 .7 .6 4 .17 .11 St. Martin.in.the.Fields 7 .8 .6 1 .12 .08 Strand 12 .6 .5 — .17 — Holborn 35 1.0 1.2 7 .17 .24 Clerkenwell 91 .9 1.4 23 .15 .35 St. Luke 36 .7 .9 6 .12 .15 London, City of 86 .8 3.1 12 .17 .43 Shoreditch 168 .8 1.4 25 .14 .21 Bethnal.green 202 1.0 1.6 38 .16 .30 Whitechapel 138 .6 1.7 15 .12 .18 St. George-in-the-East 72 .9 1.5 9 .15 19 Limehouse 136 1.0 2.3 22 .16 .38 Mile-end- Old.town 138 .8 1.2 26 .16 .23 Poplar 277 1.3 1.6 38 .19 .22 St. Saviour, Southwark 11 .5 .5 1 .08 .04 St. George, Southwark 56 .6 .9 8 .12 .13 Newington 111 .6 .9 23 .12 .19 St. Olave 11 .6 1.0 2 .13 .18 Bermondsey 110 .6 1.3 18 .12 .21 Rotherhithe 54 1.0 1.3 11 .16 .27 Lambeth 220 .6 .7 50 .11 .16 Battersea 162 .7 .9 38 .12 .22 Wandsworth 127 .6 .6 18 .10 .09 Camberwell 176 .6 .7 33 11 .12 Greenwich 167 1.1 .9 30 .16 .16 Lewisham 69 .5 .6 12 .08 .11 Woolwich 27 .5 .7 5 .13 .12 Lee 21 .7 .5 4 .08 .10 Plumstead 25 .4 — .12 — Port of London 21 — — — — — London 4,467 .7 1.0 759 131 .171 The subject of tbe greater prevalence of enteric fever in London in 1899, is referred to by many medical officers of health in their annual reports, and possible causes of particular cases of this disease are discussed. In many cases the cause was not discoverable, but in others some cause was assignable, such as exposure to an antecedent case of the disease. In several reports, moreover, illustrations of the communication of this disease from one person to another are given. Dr. Reginald Dudfield mentions two such occurrences in Paddington. Dr. T. Orme Dudfield gives account of a series of cases in Kensington apparently having their origin in a case of enteric fever in Paddington which was not notified. The illness of this person was followed by the illness of eleven other persons associated with the first sufferer or others infected by this first ca6e. Ten houses in all (including the house in Paddington), were invaded. In Fulham a series of six cases is mentioned by Mr. Jackson, as well as smaller series in each of which the subsequent cases appeared to be due to infection from the first. The occurrence of nine cases in a family of eleven persons in St. Pancras is reported by Dr. Sykes, who expresses the opinion that the cause of the spread of the disease was personal infection. In Shoreditch, Dr. Bryett found that during the year in each of two houses a series of five cases occurred, and in a third house a series of three cases. In each house the persons affected were members of one family. Dr. Priestley gives account of three similar groups, in which the number of persons affected was respectively six, six, and eight. The experiences of enteric fever in 1899, as, indeed, that of previous years, points to the spread of enteric fever from cases of this disease, the nature of the illness of the first case not being recognised. It further shows the risk of the retention of cases of enteric fever in the houses of 1 See footnote ('), page 3. 40 poor persons when the conditions of life are such as to give opportunity for extension of the disease. The early recognition of enteric fever, the use of the Widal test in all doubtful cases, the isolation of the sufferer, and the employment of persons beyond middle life to attend upon the sick, are all needed to limit such spread of the disease. Special outbreaks of enteric fever are referred to in the annual reports relating to some other districts. The medical officer of health of Islington reported on the prevalence of enteric fever in the St. Mary's Workhouse school, in the boys' department of which 19 cases occurred in the past six months, and in the girls' department, of which 21 cases occurred in July and August, 1899. In each of the three preceding years 9, 1 and 4 cases had occurred respectively in the boys' department. Dr. Harris, as the result of his investigation, came to the conclusion that the water in the cistern supplying drinking water was liable to pollution in two ways : one from its direct connection with a water. closet it supplied with water, the other from the tact that it was not aerially disconnected from the water-closet chamber. The water supply was, moreover, he considers, elsewhere liable to pollution by the steam from the boys' baths. Bacteriological examination of the water was made at the Jenner Institute, and it was reported to be unfit for either drinking or washing purposes. Dr. Harris came to the conclusion that pollution of the water caused the outbreak in the boys' school, and states that there is little doubt that the girls were affected through the drains of the two departments being connected with each other. Dr. Sedgwick Saunders gives account of an outbreak of enteric fever in a retail drapery establishment in the City in which 620 persons were employed, 416 of whom slept on the premises. On the 28th November, 1898, a case of this disease occurred on the premises, and fifty days later, i.e., on the 15th January, a series of cases began, 53 persons being attacked between that date and the 9th February. Dr. Saunders was unable to connect this outbreak with the water or milk supply, but found certain defects in the drainage. Dr. Moore came to the conclusion that three cases of enteric fever in Eltham were due to the sewer with which the houses in which these persons dwelt being unventilated, and to the cellars of these houses having drain inlets which were not disconnected from the sewer. Mr. Jackson states that in three instances in Fulham "the disease was reported shortly after the basement of the houses had been flooded with sewage, owing to the surcharging of the sewer." In several reports it is stated that shell-fish had been eaten shortly before the beginning of illness, thus in one instance, in Paddington, cockles had been previously eaten at Southend. In Kensington " in several of the cases locally recorded, the sufferers had partaken of oysters, mussels, &c., at seaside resorts, within such periods of time antecedent to date of illness as to suggest a relationship of cause and effect." In Fulham, " In five cases the origin of the disease was ascribed to shell-fish." In Marylebone, " in several cases there appeared to be good evidence that the infection was taken in with such foods as oysters, mussels, or other shell-fish." In Stoke Newington "two cases, doubtless, contracted the disease outside London; the disease appeared to be due to the consumption of cockles in one case and to the consumption of oysters in another case." In Holborn "in three cases there was good evidence that shell-fish might have caused the disease." In Newington " in quite one-half of the cases notified within this period (middle of September to middle of November) the friends of the patients attributed the disease to the eating of shell-fish, presumably mussels. Certainly the eating of the mussels had taken place about eight or ten days before the illness commenced or within the usual incubation period. The mussels were the Dutch variety;' In Lambeth " in six cases there appears to have been a causal relationship between the attacks and the previous ingestion (within the incubation period) of infected shell-fish, in three cases oysters, in two cases mussels, and in one case cockles being the suspected medium." In Wandsworth parish in five cases, "the patients had partaken of shell-fish shortly before." In Greenwich "it was found that a great number of the cases had partaken of various sorts of shell-fish, such as oysters, mussels and cockles. In Plumstead, " in two cases eating insufficiently-cooked mussels may have been the cause, and in one case oysters." In connection with the larger prevalence of enteric fever in 1899 must be mentioned the fact that several of the medical officers of health have referred to delay in removal to hospital of persons suffering from this disease. The medical officer of health of Paddington mentions that there was occasional delay in the removal of persons ill of enteric fever during the late summer and early autumn. In St. George-in-the-East there was in November " some little delay in effecting removal of cases." In Poplar, "During the last quarter of the year, when typhoid fever prevailed, great difficulty was experienced in obtaining the removal of patients, as many as fifteen being kept waiting at one time." The employment of the Widal test may possibly have led to some increase in the number of cases of enteric fever notified, several sanitary authorities undertaking to send material for examination at their expense. In Fulham material from 17 cases was sent for examination, the result being positive in 14 cases. In Chelsea material is sent to the Jenner Institute. In St. George, Hanoversquare, material from 10 cases was sent to the Jenner Institute with positive results in three cases. In St. Pancras material from 73 cases was sent for examination, the result being positive in 28, negative in 42, and doubtful in 3 cases. In Islington material from 76 cases was sent to the Jenner Institute, with positive results in 25 cases. In Stoke Newington material from 6 cases was examined, the result being positive in 2 and negative in 4 cases. In St. Giles material from two cases was sent for examination, with a negative result in each. In St. Martin-in-the-Fields material from one case was sent to the laboratory of the Conjoint Board, with a negative result. In Limehouse materia from three cases was sent to the bacteriologist of the London Hospital with a positive result in one case. In Poplar material from 24 cases was sent to the Jenner Institute with a positive result in 18 cases. In Lambeth material from 81 cases was examined in the bacteriological laboratory of the vestry with positive results in 40 cases. In Wandsworth material from 9 cases was sent to the bacteriologist of the vestry with positive results in 4 cases. In Camberwell material from 8 cases was sent to the bacteriologist of the Vestry with positive results in 4 cases. In Plumstead material from 4 cases was sent to the Jenner Institute with positive results in 3 cases. 41 As already stated, and as will be seen by reference to diagram XVI., the year 1899 was characterised by excessive prevalence of enteric fever in the latter part of the year. There was marked increase above tho average in the 40th-46th weeks, the increase being most manifested in the 43rd, 44th and 45th weeks. Thus there was a marked increase in the number of cases notified in the 40th week (week ending 7th October), a fall in the 41st week, and from that time a rapid rise in each successive week, 42nd, 43rd, and 44th. The prevalence showed a trifling decline in the 45th week and a rapid decline in the 46th week, after which the fall in each successive week (with one exception) was continuous and rapid. This excess of prevalence was manifested over wide areas of London, both on the north and south of the Thames, the districts on the north of the river which were most affected being those in the east of London. It is interesting to observe that some difference in the relative proportion of males and females attacked is observable in the year 1899 when compared with the two preceding years. Thus, in 1899, in the four weeks 42-45 the proportion of females attacked was greater than in the rest of the year, in 1897 and 1898 it was less in these four weeks than in the rest of the year. The actual proportions were as follows— No. of females attacked, per cent, of total attacks. Year. No. weeks, 42.45.In rest of year. 1897 43.3 45.3 1898 40.3 44.0 1899 48.1 44.2 It will be seen, therefore, that in 1897 and 1898 the proportion of females was less in the weeks in question than in the remaining portion of the year, and that in 1899 the position was reversed. When the proportion of females over fifteen years of age in the four weeks in question in 1899 is compared with the proportion in the corresponding period of the two preceding years, it is found to be somewhat smaller. Thus the number of females over 15 years of age per cent, of total females attacked was in 1897 693 per cent., in 1898 67.1 per cent., and in 1899 65*1 per cent. Again when the lists of notified cases of infectious disease are examined it is found that secondary cases in invaded houses were greater in 1899 than in the preceding two years. Thus the proportion of secondary to total cases in the latter six months of each of these years was—1897, 8-7 percent.; 1898, 8-9 per cent.; 1899, 10'9 per cent. In connection with possible causes of the behaviour of enteric fever in 1899 it is deserving of notice that floods in the rivers did not precede the increase under consideration as in 1894, when they preceded an increase which I believe was due to pollution of water supply. There was, however, in the large excess of cases in the 43rd, 44th, and 45th weeks, suggestion that some undiscovered infected food supply was contributing to the total prevalence which occurred during these weeks. As the result of considerable enquiry in those districts in which the prevalence of the disease was most marked, I have been unable to obtain any evidence indicative of a particular common cause of enteric fever in the weeks mentioned. Apart from the increase in these weeks, there was, as will be seen on reference to diagram XX. (page 50), larger autumnal prevalence of this disease than in any recent year, and it may be stated that during the last few years there has been increasing autumnal prevalence, probably due to natural causes. The behaviour of enteric fever in this respect may be compared with that of scarlet fever and diphtheria by reference to diagrams XVIII. and XIX. (page 50). Enteric fever—Age and sex distribution. In the year 1899 the case rate, death rate, and case mortality, were greater among males than females. The case rate of males was greater than that of females at each age period except 55 years and upwards ; the death rate of males at ages 5- and 10- was less than that of females, but at each subsequent age was greater except at 55 years and upwards. The case mortality of females at ages 0- 5- 10- and 15- was greater than that of males, but at each subsequent age period, except 45and 55 and upwards, was less than that of males. This will be seen from the following table— Enteric fever*, 1899. Age-period. Males. Females. Cases. Deaths. Case mortality per cent. Rates per 100,000 living. Cases. Deaths. Case mortality per cent. Rates per 100,000 living. Cases. Deaths. Cases. Deaths. All ages. 2,446 453 18-5 114 21 2,008 348 17-3 84 15 0— 2 10.4 4 2 12.5 1— 8 1 7 1 2— 17 3 36 4 16 3 32 4 o 3- 24 2 31 2 4— 45 4 30 3 5— 313 21 6.7 128 9 274 24 8.8 111 10 10— 407 33 8.1 183 15 332 42 12.7 146 19 15— 393 48 12.2 184 23 294 40 13.6 124 17 20— 353 88 24.9 168 42 303 50 16.5 120 20 25— 545 156 28.6 151 43 401 90 22.4 97 22 35— 231 65 281 87 24 199 49 24.6 67 17 45— 84 24 28.6 45 13 82 25 305 39 12 55 and upwards. 24 8 33.3 13 4 35 17 48.6 14 7 * fee footnote (*), page 34. [6] 42 Diarrhoea. The deaths in the Administrative County of London attributed to diarrhoea and dysentery in the year 1899 numbered 4,196, compared with 4,365 in the year 1898. The death rates in 1899 and preceding periods are shown in the following table— Diarrhoea—Death, rates per 1,000 living. Period. Death-rate per 1,000 living. Period. Death-rate per 1,000 living. 1851-60 1.03 1894 0.411 1861-70 1.04 1895 0.821 1871-80 0.95 1896 0.711 1881-90 0.75 1897 0.921 1891 0.571 1898 0.971 1892 0.601 1899 0.921 1893 0.801 The diarrhoea death rate in each year since 1840 in relation to the mean death rate of the period 1841-99 is shown in diagram XV. The mean temperature of the summer quarter of each year in relation to the mean of the period 1841-99 is also shown. The intimate relation between the temperature of the summer quarter and the prevalence of diarrhoea is most marked. The age distribution of the deaths2 from this disease in the Registration County of County in the year 1899 was as follows— Under 1 year. 1-5. 5-20. 20-40. 40-60. 60-80. 80 and upwards. 3,330 519 21 22 65 173 66 It will thus be seen that over 79 per cent. of the total deaths occurred among children under one year of age and over 91 per cent. among children under five years of age. It will be seen from the following table that the London diarrhoea death rate was lower than that of any of the undermentioned towns in the year 1899 and in the period 1889-98 was lower than that of any except Bristol— Diairhcea—Death rates per 1,000 living. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. Towns. 1889-98. 1899. London 0.722 0 .932 Bristol 0.58 1.ll Manchester 1.21 1.83 Nottingham 1.04 1.68 Liverpool 1.24 1.87 Bradford 0.91 0.97 Birmingham 1.18 1.67 Hull 1.43 1.46 Leeds 1.12 0.94 Salford 1.51 1.97 Sheffield 1.31 1.58 West Ham 0.81 1.55 During the year the eastern group of districts had the highest death rate and the northern group the lowest. Among the several sanitary districts the death rate was highest in St. George, Southwark, and lowest in the City. During the first quarter of the year the central group of districts had the highest death rate and the northern and eastern groups the lowest; during the second quarter the eastern group had the highest death rate and the southern group the lowest; during the third quarter the eastern group again had the highest death rate and the northern the lowest; while during the fourth quarter the southern group had the highest death rate and the northern again the lowest. 9 See footnote (1), page 3. 2 See footnote (2), page 3. 48 Tlhe death rate of each sanitary district in the period 1889-98 and in 1899 will he seen from the following table— Sanitary district. Death 8, 1899. Death rate per 1,000 living. Sanitary district. Deaths, 1899. Death rate per 1,000 living. 1889—98. 1899. 1889—98. 1899. Paddington 106 .58 .83 Shoreditch 198 1.09 1.64 Kensington 101 .51 .59 Bethnal-green 156 .84 1.21 Hammersmith 101 .83 .93 Whitechapel 46 .72 .57 Fulham 183 113 1.40 St. George-in-the-East 59 1.41 1.22 Chelsea 64 .69 .66 Limehouse 71 93 1.21 St. George, Hanoversquare 29 .32 .36 Mile-end Old-town 111 .85 .98 Poplar 247 .81 1.45 Westminster 39 .63 .75 St. Saviour, Southwark 34 .75 1.41 St. James 8 .38 .37 St. George, Southwark 102 1.07 1.69 Marylebone 100 .55 .72 Newington 124 .91 1.00 Hampstead 35 .27 .44 St. Olave 6 .93 .54 Pancras 231 .70 .95 Bermondsey 82 .78 .96 Islington 256 .59 74 Rotherhithe 32 .78 .78 Stoke Newington 19 .66 .54 Lambeth 286 .69 .93 Hackney 194 .87 Battersea 116 .80 .66 St. Giles 26 .55 .70 Wandsworth 176 .59 .84 St. Martin - in - the Fields 6 .31 .50 Camberwell 239 .69 .90 Greenwich 203 .76 1.12 Strand... 17 .55 .74 Lewisham 106 .52 .94 Holborn 26 .70 .88 Woolwich 45 .68 1.09 Clerkenwell ... 70 .95 1.06 Lee 27 .40 .67 St. Luke 59 1.06 1.45 Plumstead 51 .57 .80 London, City of 9 .23 .32 London 4,196 711 921 44 The number of cases notified and the case rate of 1899, together with the mean case rate of the period 1891-8, for each sanitary district of the administrative county are shown in the following table— Sanitary district. Cases, 1899. Case-rate per 1,000 living. Sanitary district. Cases, 1899. Case-rate per 1,000 living. 1891-98. 1899. 1891-98. 1899. Paddington 148 1.1 1.2 Whitechapel 125 1.7 1.5 Kensington 210 1.3 1.2 St. George-in-the-East 78 1.6 1.6 Hammersmith 109 1.0 1.0 Limehouse 78 1.7 1.3 Fulham 179 1.0 1.4 Mile-end Old-town 149 1.7 1.3 Chelsea 83 1.4 0.9 Poplar 230 2.0 1.4 St. George, Hanover-sq. 73 0.7 0.9 St. Saviour, Southwark 33 1.4 1.4 Westminster 56 1.1 1.1 St. George, Southwark 76 1.5 1.3 St. James 22 0.9 1.0 Newington 201 1.5 1.6 Marylebone 202 1.7 1.4 St. Olave 3 1.5 0.2 Hampstead 52 0.7 0.6 Bermondsey 88 1.5 1.0 Pancras 311 1.8 1.3 Rotherhithe 83 2.2 2.0 Islington 355 1.2 1.0 Lambeth 336 1.2 1.1 Stoke Newington 32 1.4 0.9 Battersea 208 1.7 1.2 Hackney 301 1.4 Wandsworth 240 1.4 1.1 &t. Giles 55 2.0 1.5 Camberwell 259 1.2 1.0 St. Martin-in-the-Fields 9 0.9 0.7 Greenwich 271 1.5 1.5 Strand 17 0.6 0.7 Lewisham 89 1.0 0.8 Holborn 46 2.0 1.6 Woolwich 28 0.8 0.7 Clerkenwell 72 1.9 1.1 Lee 29 0.9 0.7 St. Luke 64 2.3 1.6 Plumstead 64 1.0 London, City of 21 1.1 0.8 Port of London 2 — — Shoreditch 202 1.8 1.7 London 5,615 1.4 1.2 Bethnal-green 326 2.4 2.5 Referring to the cases of erysipelas which were notified, the medical officers of health of Kensington and Lambeth state that many were not such as were contemplated by the framers of the Act. The medical officer of health of Paddington states that two notifications were received during the year from each of six houses, and three from two other houses. " In one of the two last instances the mother was first ill and the disease was subsequently communicated to her two sons eight and ten days later respectively. In the other case, three notifications were received during the year with respect to one woman, aged 77, who had attacks in January, February and August. With respect to the houses whence two cases were reported, in two the notifications dealt with the same patients, in two others the attacks were in independent families, at considerable intervals, and were doubtless quite unconnected; in one case the second attack was evidently contracted from the first; and in the last, one of the two cases notified could not be traced or identified at all." The steps taken by sanitary authorities are referred to by the medical officer of health of St. Pancras. In that district inquiry is made into the circumstances of the case, the best isolation obtainable is advised, the bedding and clothing are disinfected, sanitary inspection of the premises is made, and the drains tested. Puerperal Fever. The deaths in the Registration County of London in 1899 attributed to puerperal fever numbered 209, the corrected annual average of the preceding ten years being 250. The number of cases notified and the number of deaths registered in the Registration County of London since the year 1890 have been as follows— Puerperal fever. Year. Cases. Deaths.1 1891 221 222 1892 337 313 1893 397 352 1894 253 210 1895 236 208 1896 277 225 1897 264 215 1898 247 184 1899 326 209 1See footnote (2), page 3. 45 If these cases and deaths are considered in relation to the total population and total births, the following rates are obtained— Year. Case-rate per 1,000 living. Case-rate per 1,000 births. Death-rate1 per 1,000 living. Death-rate1 per 1,000 births. 1891 .05 1.64 .05 1.65 1892 .08 2.55 .07 2.37 1893 .09 2.98 .08 2.65 1894 .06 1.92 .05 1.60 1895 .05 1.76 .05 1.56 1896 .06 2.04 .05 1.66 1897 .06 1.98 .05 1.61 1898 .05 1.86 .04 1.39 1899 .07 2.45 .05 1.57 It will thus be seen that whereas the deaths from puerperal fever in 1899 increased some 14 per cent. upon the deaths in 1898, the notified cases increased some 32 per cent. In 1898 the London County Council had under consideration a letter from the Vestry of Bethnal-green, asking the Council to add to the list of notifiable diseases named in section 55 of the Public Health (London) Act the names of diseases included under the head of puerperal fever by the Registrar-General as follows— " Both peritonitis and metritis when occurring in connection with parturition, as well aa puerperal pyaemia, puerperal septicaemia, and puerperal sapraemia." The Council consulted Sir Samuel Wilks, the President of the Royal College of Physicians, asking him whether in his opinion the various diseases in question are included in the term " puerperal fever " and notifiable as such. Sir Samuel Wilks laid the Council's letter before a committee of the Royal College, who adopted the following resolution, which Sir Samuel Wilks stated he entirely approved— " That this committee is of opinion that, with a view to the limitation of dangerous infectious diseases, the London County Council would be acting rightly in adopting the view that the expression 'puerperal fever,'as contained in section 55 of the Public Health (London) Act, 1891, should be taken to include septicaemia, pyaemia, septic peritonitis, septic metritis and other acute septic inflammations in the pelvis occurring as the direct result of childbirth." Copies of this resolution have in some districts been communicated by medical officers of health to medical practitioners in their districts, and this opinion has otherwise become known to medical men in London, leading no doubt to increase in the number of cases of " puerperal fever " notified. Inquiries by the medical officer of health of Paddington with respect to notified cases of " puerperal fever," showed that "of four cases occurring in connection with the Queen Charlotte Maternity, two were due to a septic case in Kensington not diagnosed at the date of the labours in this parish, and one was a woman who had in bed with her at the time of her confinement, a child with a discharging sore (hip disease;." In all of seven cases notified " there was evidence that drain emanations could and probably did get access to the lying-in room." Inquiries by the medical officer of health of Kensington, who warns nurses as to the precautions to be taken, showed that there was no extension of the disease from one person to another. In Hampstead five cases were recorded, among which were two deaths. The medical officer of health states that infection by the agency of the midwife was thought to be traced in certain instances. The medical officer of health of Bethnal-green reports that a midwife practising in the district had a number of cases. He directed her to cease attendances, to destroy all her infected clothing, and to go into the country for a month. She had no fresh cases on her return. The medical officer of health of St. Saviour, Southwark, states that after the occurrence of cases of puerperal fever the bed and bedding were burnt and the rooms thoroughly disinfected, compensation being given for the articles destroyed. In one of the cases the nurse in attendance was prevented from attending any other lying-in patient for a period of two months, compensation being made to her. In Plumstead of five cases of puerperal fever, which were recorded during the year, three were attended by midwives. Influenza, Bronchitis and Pneumonia. The deaths attributed to influenza, which in 1898 numbered 1,283, rose to 1,817 in 1899, the corrected annual average for the preceding ten years being 1,272. The deaths attributed to bronchitis numbered 9,195, being 1,008 below the corrected annual average for the preceding ten years; the deaths from pneumonia, however, were 597 in excess of this average, and numbered 0.666. The deaths from these diseases in the Registration County of London since 1889 have been as follows— Tear. Influenza. Bronchitis. Pneumonia. Deaths.1 Corrected annual average for preceding ten years. Deaths.1 Corrected annual average for preceding ten years. Deaths.1 Corrected annual average for preceding ten years. 1890 652 7.0 12,448 11,342.8 6,224 4,925.0 1891 2,336 74.0 13,136 10,887.3 6,915 4,883.0 1892 2,264 318.7 11,183 11,230.0 6,164 5,171.9 1893 1,526 556.2 10,413 11.250.0 7,198 5,341.6 1894 750 715.5 7,816 11,292.3 5,321 5,632.5 1895 2,156 795.2 10,633 11,1671 5,989 5,755.7 1896 496 1,0390 7,558 11,3850 5,537 5,996.0 1897 671 1,0690 7,408 10,7540 5,053 5,962.0 1898 1,283 1,1380 7,779 10,4460 5,440 5,988.0 1899 1,817 1,2720 9,195 10,2030 6,666 6,069.0 1 See footnote (2), page 3. 46 The following table is of interest as showing the rapidity with which influenza may increase from small to epidemic proportions, and the fact that the mortality from the disease has usually attained its maximum in the late autumn or winter months. Influenza—Deaths1 registered in London in four-weekly periods, 1890-99. Number of weeks. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Weeks 1—4 303 9 1,308 52 272 59 37 40 244 66 „ 5—8 167 7 637 96 96 164 58 55 368 259 „ 9—12 75 8 119 162 69 1,343 61 94 193 430 „ 13—16 39 29 42 180 56 257 50 121 140 302 „ 17—20 13 770 33 125 32 106 50 96 61 121 „ 21—24 5 1,044 22 72 27 35 33 54 51 82 „ 25—28 6 242 15 49 19 28 17 26 25 42 „ 29—32 6 51 7 23 17 14 15 18 27 27 „ 33—36 3 32 9 23 20 17 10 13 10 11 „ 37—40 6 13 6 18 14 15 12 19 17 19 „ 41—44 5 15 20 28 29 22 27 29 46 55 „ 45—48 13 35 18 152 41 47 56 35 49 61 „ 49—52* 6 81 28 546 58 49 56 71 52 342 * The deaths occurring in the 53rd week of the years 1890 and 1896 are excluded from these figures. Phthisis. The deaths from phthisis in the Administrative County of London during 1899 (52 weeks) numbered 8,291. The death rates of this disease per 1,000 living in the Registration County of London in successive periods have been as follows— Phthisis. 1851-60 2.86 1894 1.74 1861-70 2.84 1895 1.83 1871-80 2.51 1896 1.73 1881-90 2.09 1897 1.77 1891 2.02 1898 1.77 1892 1.89 1899 1.881 1893 1.91 The Registrar-General, in the annual summaries relating to London and other large towns, since the year 1893, has distributed the deaths from phthisis, occurring in public institutions belonging to London, to the sanitary districts to which they belong, and it is therefore possible to compare the phthisis death rates of the various sanitary districts. The death rates (!) in the several groups of districts since 1893 have been as follows— 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Central group 2.58 2.65 2.53 2.69 2.66 2.75 East „ 2.00 2.05 1.89 2.03 2.06 2.19 South „ 1.54 1.70 1.60 1.62 1.66 1.74 North ,. 1.60 1.63 1.58 1.55 1.54 1.64 West „ 1.55 1.55 1.54 1.53 1.52 1.65 The following table shows the number of deaths and the death rate per 1,000 living in 1899 (52 weeks) in the several sanitary districts of London— Sanitary district. Deaths, 1899. Death rate per 1,000 living. Sanitary district. Deaths, 1899. Death rate per 1,000 living. Paddington 148 1.15 Bethnal-green 303 2.36 Kensington 231 1.34 Whitechapel 194 2.39 Hammersmith 187 1.72 St. George-in-the-East 121 2.50 Fulham 238 1.83 Limehouse 135 2.30 Chelsea 173 1.79 Mile-end Old-town 205 1.82 St. George, Hanover-sq. 110 1.36 Poplar 364 2.14 Westminster 172 3.31 St. Saviour, Southwark 83 3.44 St. James 46 2.11 St. George, Southwark 213 3.53 Marylebone 277 1.98 Newington 325 2.62 Hampstead 67 0.84 St. Olave 28 2.53 Pancras 489 2.01 Bermondsey 183 2.14 Islington 552 1.59 Rotherhithe 75 1.83 Stoke Newington 31 0.88 Lambeth 537 1.75 Hackney 332 1.50 Battersea 277 1.59 St. Giles 116 3.13 Wandsworth 253 1.21 St. Martin-in-the-Fields 22 1.82 Camberwell 404 1.53 Strand 62 2.70 Greenwich 281 1.54 Holbora 91 3.08 Lewisham 120 1.07 Clerkenwell 153 2.32 Woolwich 102 2.46 St. Luke 144 3.53 Lee 40 1.00 London, City of 61 2.19 Plumstead 93 1.46 Shoreditch 253 2.10 London 8,291 1.822 1 See footnote (2), page 3. 2See footnote (2), page 3. LONDON, 1899. Diagram XVII Mortality and Overcrowding. Diagram shewing comparative death rates from "All Causes," Phthisis, and from "All Causes excluding Phthisis " at certain age-periods in groups of Sanitary Districts arranged with respect to their condition as to overcrowding. 47 In the distribution of phthisis mortality throughout the year 1899 the central group of districts had the highest death rate and the northern group the lowest. Of the several sanitary districts St. Luke and St. George, Southwark, had the highest death rate (3.53) and Hampstead the lowest (0.84). During each of the four quarters of the year the central group of districts had the highest death rate. The northern group of districts had the lowest death rate during the third quarter of the year, and the western group during the first, second and fourth quarters. The following table shows the number of deaths from phthisis at several age periods in each of the sanitary districts of the administrative county. For the purposes of this table deaths occurring in public institutions belonging to London have been distributed to the sanitary areas in which the deceased had previously resided. (See footnote (1), page 3). Phthisis, 1899 (365 days). Age period. 0- 5- 10- 15- 20- 25- 35- 45- 55- 65- 75- 85 & up All ages. Paddington 4 — 3 6 11 30 41 28 13 7 4 — 147 Kensington 4 — — 9 10 64 56 54 25 12 1 _ 235 Hammersmith 6 2 7 13 15 39 50 30 14 7 1 — 184 Fulham 5 1 8 11 15 57 68 36 25 11 1 238 Chelsea 1 2 1 7 9 29 56 49 12 6 1 _ 173 St. George, Hanover-square 4 1 1 2 11 21 26 23 15 6 _ 110 Westminster 4 2 — 6 13 37 55 33 10 10 _ — 170 St. James — — — 1 4 7 18 10 4 2 — _ 46 Marylebone 7 4 4 11 15 48 70 72 32 15 4 _ 282 Hampstead 1 1 2 3 3 18 17 8 5 3 2 _ 63 Pancras 14 4 5 26 34 125 118 95 47 11 4 1 484 Islington 17 6 4 35 47 128 144 108 44 21 1 1 556 Stoke Newington — — — 3 4 6 7 4 1 5 _ _ 30 Hackney 15 — 5 21 41 74 78 50 37 10 — _ 331 St. Giles 3 — 1 2 2 31 33 37 8 2 — — 119 St. Martin-in-the-Fields — — — — 1 3 8 9 2 — — 23 Strand 2 1 3 4 6 9 18 12 5 2 — 62 Holborn 3 2 — 5 5 24 28 15 4 3 1 — 90 Clerkenwell 2 — 3 4 10 27 50 40 12 7 — 155 St. Luke 10 3 1 6 9 28 39 37 9 4 — 146 London, City of — — — 6 2 11 17 11 8 2 57 Shoreditch 8 3 4 5 25 58 69 52 20 8 _ — 252 Bethnal-green 14 — 3 21 22 58 92 58 25 10 303 Whitechapel 7 1 1 4 11 49 58 31 19 16 1 198 St. George-in-the-East 8 2 — 1 13 42 29 14 12 3 1 — 125 Limehouse 11 2 2 7 9 27 42 24 9 3 1 — 137 Mile end Old-town 6 1 3 11 16 39 58 45 21 7 — 207 Poplar 8 4 5 23 33 75 96 60 42 15 3 — 364 St. Saviour, Southwark 2 1 — 5 4 16 20 24 9 3 1 — 85 St. George, Southwark 8 1 3 12 12 32 65 47 21 6 207 Newington 14 5 4 12 30 61 84 65 25 23 3 _ 326 St. Olave 2 — 1 1 2 5 7 8 1 _ _ 27 Bermondsey 6 — 1 4 18 51 45 31 20 7 1 184 Rotherhithe — 2 2 6 1 17 22 15 9 1 — 75 Lambeth 26 7 12 32 49 120 150 95 36 12 1 — 540 Battersea 7 2 10 21 26 64 67 41 28 5 2 — 273 Wandsworth 18 2 3 20 23 48 66 32 22 13 3 — 250 Camberwell 11 3 3 28 42 92 99 80 36 12 1 — 407 Greenwich 13 3 8 20 25 56 61 39 41 7 1 1 275 Lewisham 3 1 4 9 14 23 37 14 8 7 2 1 123 Woolwich 3 — 1 6 6 23 35 15 10 3 — 102 Lee — 2 — 3 1 13 7 7 6 1 — 40 Plumstead 4 1 3 6 8 27 16 17 8 1 1 — 92 London 281 72 121 438 657 1,812 2,222 1,575 760 308 43 4 8.293 Since the discovery of the tubercle bacillus by Koch, in 1882, attention has been increasingly given to the measures which can be adopted for tbe prevention of phthisis. The recognition3 of the cause of phthisis is leading sanitary authorities to consider how far the application of methods commonly used for the limitation of the infectious diseases may be useful in connection with this disease, and hence in several of the London districts opportunity is given by the sanitary authorities for the disinfection of rooms which have been occupied by persons who have suffered from phthisis. The reports of medical officers of bealth shew that disinfection is thus undertaken by the sanitary authorities in Kensington, Marylebone, Stoke Newington, St. Luke, Shoreditch, Mile-end Old-town, St. George-the-Martyr, Newington, Lambeth, Battersea, Camberwell, Plumstead. My last report contained a diagram showing, for the year 1898, the relation of overcrowding to mortality from "all causes," and to mortality from phthisis. In the present report I include a diagram arranged in a somewhat similar manner, and which enables the mortality statistics of 1899 to be studied* This diagram (XVII.) shows that mortality from all causes, from phthisis and » The death rates at ages have been calculated for groups of sani'.ary districts arranged in order of " overcrowding.'* The death rates obtaining in the least overcrowded group have been adopted as standards of comparison ; the death rates at each age of the other groups of districts being expressed as a percentage above or below tbe corresponding death rate obtaining in the kast overcrowded group In the diagram the death rates obtaining in the least overcrowded group of districts are represented by the dotted lines, th* death rates obtaining in each of the other groups of districts being represented by a curve. The amount of " overcrowding "in the group of districts to which each curve relates is shown in the margin. * Each fquare in the diagram represents 10 per cent. It will be seen that three curves are shown for each groun of sanitary districts, viz — lilack ... ... Phthisis Red ... ... All causes Slue ... ... All causes less phthisis The above description applies equally to each of these curves. 46 from all causes other than phthisis, increases with overcrowding, and that the maximum increase from diseases other than phthisis occurs somewhat earlier in life than the maximum increase from phthisis; while in this diagram the conditions under which the inhabitants are housed alone can be considered, it must be recollected that the population which is badly housed suffers from other consequences of poverty than insufficiency of dwelling accommodation. But however much these other conditions may contribute to the production of phthisis, there is ample reason for thinking that the dwelling itself and the manner in which it is occupied are important factors in determining the prevalence of this disease. It is interesting to consider in this connection the measures which are now in the main relied upon for the cure of phthisis. They consist in the placing of the patient by night and by day under conditions which are mostly widely different from, and indeed are directly opposed to, those which obtain in the overcrowded tenement. In so far as these measures are successful in effecting the cure of phthisis the overcrowded dwelling must be deemed to promote the disease, and hence the effects of overcrowding upon phthisis mortality may be understood. The figures upon which diagam XVII. is based are shown in the following tables— Phthisis—Death rates1 per 1,000 living, 1899. Proportion of total population living more than two in a room. (In tenements of less than five rooms.) All ages. 0- 5- 10- 15- 20- 25- 35- 45- 55- 65- 75 and upwards. Districts with under 10 per cent. 1.18 0.51 0.13 0.23 0.86 1.09 1.56 2.45 1.91 1.94 1.57 1.52 „ ,, 10 to l5 ,, 1.52 0.40 0.09 0.33 0.97 1.45 2.02 3.17 2.90 3.21 1.82 0.64 „ „ 15 to 20 „ 1.68 0.40 0.15 0.25 0.95 1.14 2.08 3.71 3.70 2.78 1.85 0.90 „ „ 20 to 25 „ 2.00 0.51 0.17 0.16 0.95 1.69 2.55 4.43 4.49 3.19 3.36 0.80 „ 25 to 30 2.13 0.69 0.21 0.30 1.00 1.16 2.66 4.23 5.19 3.46 2.09 1.90 „ „ 30 to 35 „ 2.54 0.73 0.14 0.34 1.31 2.04 3.03 6.08 6.45 4.44 2.89 0.31 „ „ over 35 „ 2.68 0.87 0.27 0.19 0.75 1.78 3.83 6.25 5.90 4.05 4.91 1.54 Phthisis—Comparative death rates (death rates in least overcrowded group at each age period taken as 100). Proportion of total population living more than two in a room. (In tenements of less than five rooms.) All ages. 0- 5- 10- 15- 20- 25- 35- 45- 55- 65- 75 and upwards. Districts with under 10 per cent. 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 129 78 69 143 113 133 129 129 152 165 116 42 „ „ 15 to 20 „ 142 78 115 109 110 105 133 151 194 143 118 59 „ „ 20 to 25 „ 169 100 131 70 110 155 163 181 235 164 214 53 ,, „ 25 to 30 „ 181 135 162 130 116 106 171 173 272 178 133 125 „ „ 30 to 35 „ 215 143 108 148 152 187 194 248 338 229 184 20 ,, ,, over 35 ,, 227 171 208 83 87 163 246 255 309 209 313 101 All causes—Death rates1 per 1,000 living, 1899. Proportion of total population living more than two in a room. (In tenements of less than five rooms.) All ages. 0- 5- 10- 15- 20- 25- 35- 45- 55- 65- 75 and upwards. Districts with under 10 per cent. 1522 47.08 3.62 2.04 2.66 2.97 4.54 9.26 15.27 30.43 55.33 171.42 „ „ 10 to 15 „ 17.13 53.81 3.84 2.34 3.05 3.76 5.87 11.17 18.18 34.93 62.77 165.44 ,, ,, 15 to 20 ,, 19.13 59.79 4.26 2.47 2.88 3.67 6.06 13.03 21.23 38.99 70.74 189.66 „ „ 20 to 25 „ 20.49 64.07 4.12 2.42 3.07 4.69 6.94 13.64 23.09 41.59 77.97 191.96 „ „ 25 to 30 ,, 20.48 63.78 4.47 2.16 3.03 3.76 7.13 14.57 24.95 42.49 76.29 185.09 ,, ,, 30 to 35 ,, 24.11 77.77 4.89 2.39 4.19 5.34 8.17 17.72 28.92 47.88 80.29 191.15 „ „ over 35 „ 24.03 74.49 4.49 2.51 3.24 4.34 9.53 17.89 28.71 48.36 98.87 224.96 All causes—Comparative death rates (death rates in least overcrowded group at each age period talcen as 100). Proportion of total population living more than two in a room. (In tenements of less than five rooms.) All ages. 0- 5- 10- 15- 20- 25- 35- 45- 55- 65- 75 and upwards. Districts with under 10 per cent. 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 „ „ 10 to 15 „ 113 114 106 115 115 127 129 121 119 115 113 97 „ 15 to 20 „ 126 127 118 121 108 124 133 141 139 128 128 111 „ „ 20 to 25 „ 135 136 114 119 115 158 153 147 151 137 141 112 „ 25 to 30 „ 135 135 123 106 114 127 157 157 163 140 138 108 „ „ 30 to 35 „ 158 165 135 117 158 180 180 191 189 157 145 112 „ „ over 35 „ 158 158 124 123 122 146 210 193 188 159 179 131 1 See footnote (1), page 3. 49 All causes less Phthisis—Death rates1 per 1,000 living, 1899. Proportion of total population living more than two in a room. (In tenements of less than five rooms.) All ages. 0- 5- 10- 12- 20- 25- 35- 45- 55- 65- 75 and upwards. Districts with under 10 per cent. 14.04 46.57 3.49 1.81 1.80 1.89 2.98 6.81 13.36 28.49 53.75 169.90 „ 10 to 15 „ 15.61 53.41 3.75 2.01 2.08 2.31 3.84 8.01 15.28 31.71 60.96 164.80 „15 „ 20 „ 17.45 59.39 4.10 2.22 1.93 2.53 3.97 9.31 17.53 36.21 68.88 188.75 „20 „ 25 „ 18.49 63.56 3.95 2.26 2.12 3.00 4.39 9.21 18.60 38.39 74.62 191.16 „25 „ 30 „ 18.34 63.09 4.26 1.86 2.04 2.60 4.47 10.33 19.75 39.02 74.19 183.18 „ 30 „ 35 „ 21.57 77.04 4.75 2.05 2.88 3.30 5.14 11.64 22.48 43.44 77.40 190.84 „ over 35 „ 21.35 73.62 4.22 2.32 2.49 2.56 5.70 11.64 22.81 44.30 93.96 223.42 All causes less Phthisis—Comparative death rates (death rates in least overcrowded group at each age period taken as 100). Proportion of total population living more than two in a room. (In tenements of less than five rooms.l All ages 0- 5- 10- 15- 20- 25- 35- 45- 55- 65- 75 and upwards. Districts with under 10 per cent. 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 ,, 10 to 15 „ 111 115 107 111 116 122 129 118 114 111 113 97 „15 „ 20 „ 124 128 117 123 107 134 133 137 131 127 128 111 „20 „ 25 132 136 113 125 118 159 147 135 139 135 139 113 „25 „ 30 „ 131 135 122 103 113 138 150 152 148 137 138 108 „ 30 ,, 35 „ 154 165 136 113 160 175 172 171 168 152 144 112 „ over 35 „ 152 158 121 128 138 135 191 171 171 155 175 132 Cancer. The deaths2 from cancer in the Registration County of London in 1899 numbered 4,234, the corrected annual average for the preceding ten years being 3,669. The death rates of this disease per 1,000 living in successive periods have been as follows— Cancer. 1851-60 .42 1894 .79 1861-70 .48 1895 .83 1871-80 .55 1896 .86 1881-90 .68 1897 .88 1891 .78 1898 .91 1892 .75 1899 .932 1893 .80 The following table shows the number of deaths from cancer at several age-periods in each of the sanitary districts of the administrative county. For the purposes of this table, deaths occurring in public institutions belonging to London have been distributed to the sanitary areas in which the deceased had previously resided (see footnote (1) page 3)— Cancer. Sanitary district. 0- 5- 10- 15- 20- 25- 35- 45- 55- 65- 75- 85 & up. All ages. Paddington _ _ 1 2 _ 2 16 31 34 51 19 4 160 Kensington _ _ 1 2 2 7 20 29 49 37 21 3 171 Hammersmith _ _ _ 1 _ — 8 29 23 27 8 1 97 Fulham 2 1 1 — — 2 11 19 21 16 8 1 82 Chelsea 1 _ _ — 1 — 14 26 28 16 9 3 98 St. George, Hanover-square 1 _ — _ — 6 9 20 22 23 9 1 91 Westminster _ _ _ _ _ 3 2 17 14 11 1 1 49 St. James _ _ _ — _ 1 3 4 10 4 2 _ 24 Marylebone 1 _ _ _ 1 6 14 32 36 42 16 2 150 Hampstead _ _ _ _ _ I 5 11 22 20 11 _ 70 Pancras 1 _ _ 1 _ 8 25 46 70 51 24 1 227 Islington _ _ 1 _ 2 8 21 66 92 77 19 2 290 Stoke Newington _ _ _ — 1 1 1 8 15 6 4 1 37 Hackney 1 _ 3 1 — 7 22 35 56 45 17 2 189 St. Giles 1 _ _ _ _ — 2 12 14 8 2 39 1 See f ootnote (1) page 3. 2 See footnote (2) page 3. [7] 50 Sanitary district. 0- 5- 10- 15- 20- 25- 35- 45- 55- 65- 75- 85 & up. All ages. St. Martin-in-the-Fields _ 1 _ 1 _ _ 2 2 2 2 _ _ 10 Strand _ _ _ _ _ 1 1 8 6 1 — — 17 Holborn 1 _ _ _ _ _ 2 10 9 5 3 _ 30 Clerkenwell — — — 1 — 4 13 10 13 4 1 _ 46 St. Luke 1 — — — — 2 3 8 7 8 1 — 30 London, City of — — — 1 — 1 3 10 7 2 3 — 27 Shoreditch — 1 — — — 2 11 26 28 23 5 — 96 Bethnal-green 2 — — 1 2 4 13 23 32 16 17 2 112 Whitechapel — 1 — — 1 2 6 14 16 16 2 1 59 St. George in-the-East — — 1 — 2 — 3 7 11 5 3 — 32 Limehouse — — — 1 1 1 7 15 15 10 3 — 53 Mile-end Old-town — 1 — 2 1 6 6 18 22 20 1 1 78 Poplar 1 1 1 — 1 4 18 27 37 30 8 — 128 St. Saviour, Southwark — — _ — — — 2 5 4 7 1 — 19 St. George, Southwark — — — — 1 5 7 9 14 13 3 1 53 Newington 1 — — — — 4 9 31 36 33 11 1 126 St. Olave — — _ — _ — 1 1 5 2 — — 9 Bermondsey — — 2 — — 2 5 14 16 17 12 1 69 Rotherhithe — — 1 — — 2 4 9 10 7 4 — 37 Lambeth _ 2 — 2 — 5 41 52 85 62 21 3 273 Battersea 1 — 1 — — 7 8 32 41 18 7 2 117 Wandsworth — 1 — 1 1 7 27 37 53 50 20 1 198 Camberwell 1 — — — 2 3 29 45 62 39 20 1 202 Greenwich 1 4 — — 1 1 15 42 43 41 15 5 168 Lewisham — — _ — _ 2 10 24 30 27 13 2 108 Woolwich 1 — 1 — _ — 1 8 6 13 1 — 31 Lee — — _ — 2 1 1 11 11 13 9 2 50 Plumstead 1 — — 1 — 1 5 18 17 10 7 4 64 London 21 13 14 18 22 119 426 901 1,144 928 361 49 4,016 In this table where — is inserted, no deaths occurred. Glanders. Two deaths from glanders occurred in London during 1899. The first was that of a man aged 25 years, who died in the Temperance Hospital on the 21st March. Be had come to London from Norwich a fortnight before his illness, and had been employed in London during this period as a carman; The source of his infection was not discovered. The second was that of a man aged 43 years, who had been employed for 11 years-by a firm of carmen and contractors. No disease was found in the stud of this firm, and no case of disease had been reported for many years. Bubonic Plague. Three cases of plague are reported to have been dealt with in the Port of London during the year 1899. The medical officer of health of the Port of London states that on the 26th March the s.s. " Sunda " of Greenock from Calcutta arrived at Gravesend, when it was found that one of the crew, a fireman, was suffering from symptoms suspicious of plague. The patient was removed to the Port Sanitary Hospital, and the vessel disinfected. Arrangements were also made for the daily inspection of the crew, the destruction of all rats caught, and the disinfection of bedding and clothing while in dock. The names and addresses of passengers and crew were notified in the usual way. On the 25th July the s.s. " Eastbourne " from Alexandria reported two cases of sickness. On inspection these were found to be suspicious of plague, and were therefore isolated in the Port Sanitary Hospital. All the usual precautions were taken with regard to this vessel. In addition to the cases reported above and removed to the Port Sanitary Hospital, notification was received from the Local Government Board by the Port Sanitary Authority on the 1st March that the " Himalaya," bound for London, entered the Suez canal in quarantine on February 26th, without being disinfected. This vessel had transhipped passengers and stewards at Aden from the infected steamer " Egypt," which had landed plague at Bombay. The vessel arrived at Gravesend on the 11th March, and after medical inspection was allowed to proceed without further action. On the 8th March the Local Government Board forwarded to the Port Sanitary Authority a copy of a telegram from the British Consul at Alexandria stating that the " Peninsular" had left Port Said on the 7th March with a suspected case of plague among the native crew. The vessel arrived at Gravesend on the 19th March, and on being boarded and medically inspected it was found that a case stated to be small-pox had been landed at Marseilles. There was no history of plague among the crew. On the 15th October the s.s. "Peninsular" from Bombay arrived at Gravesend, having landed a case of plague at Plymouth. All precautions having been taken, the vessel was allowed to pass up the river. On arrival in dock all the clothing of the native crew was disinfected and the crew themselves daily inspected during the stay of the vessel in port. No further cases of sickness occurred. On the 17th December the s.s. " Ballarat " from Calcutta arrived at Gravesend, having landed a suspicious case at Plymouth on the previous day. All precautions having been taken at Plymouth no further action was necessary. 51 Statistics relating to notified diseases in London Sanitary Districts as constituted by the London Government Act, 1899. At the end of this report (Appendix I.) will be found tables showing the case rates of smallpox, scarlet fever, diphtheria, typhus, enteric fever, other continued fevers, puerperal fever and erysipelas in London sanitary districts as constituted by the London Government Act, 1899, for each of the nine years 1891-99 inclusive. These tables will furnish useful material for comparing the incidence of notifiable disease on the new areas, when the London Government Act comes into operation with that of previous years. Meteorology. The tables published in the annual summary of the Registrar-General, prepared by Mr. J. Glaisher, F.R.S., from observations at Greenwich, show that the mean temperature of the air in 1899 was 50'6 degrees Fahrenheit, or 1.9 degrees above the average of the 128 years 1771-1898. The rainfall during the year amounted to 22.34 inches, and was 2.50 inches below the mean of 84 years. The temperature and rainfall in each month of 1899, are shown in the following table— Month. Temperature of the air. Depart are from average of 128 years, 1771-1898. Rain. Highest by day. Lowest by night. Mean for month. Number of days it fell. Amount collected. deg. F. deg. F. deg. F. deg. F. inches. January 55.3 29.3 42.7 + 6.0 18 2.53 February 63.9 21.9 41.9 + 3.1 12 1.93 March 61.2 20.3 40.8 — 0.4 10 0.61 April 64.1 30.7 46.7 + 0.5 20 3.00 May 72.7 33.7 50.9 — 1.7 12 1.65 June 81.5 42.1 60.7 + 2.3 6 0.76 July 88.5 49.2 65.7 + 4.0 8 1.74 August 90.0 47.2 65.7 + 4.8 6 0.35 September 87.3 37.1 57.7 + 1.1 15 2.23 October 63.6 31.2 49.1 — 0.4 10 2.34 November 62.0 28.9 48.1 + 5.5 9 3.73 December 54.9 19.3 37.0 — 21 15 1.47 PART II. Dairies, Cowsheds, and Milkshops. During 1899 the Council's inspectors made 23,999 inspections of dairies, cowsheds, and milkshops. In 55 instances legal proceedings were instituted under the dairies, cowsheds, and milkshops orders, and penalties amounting to £93 12s. 6d., with £14 10s. costs, were imposed by the magistrates. In 256 instances, cases of infectious disease occurred at registered milkshop premises, the number of cases of each disease being 111 of scarlet fever, 86 of diphtheria, 39 of enteric fever, 9 of erysipelas, 3 of continued fever, 2 of membranous croup, and 6 of measles. In each of these cases the inspectors visited the premises with a view to ensuring the adoption of measures to prevent contamination of the milk. The number of applications for renewal of existing licences to cowsheds was 338, of which 330 were granted. The number of applications for registration of dairies and milkshops received during the year was 1,971, of which 464 were in respect of premises not previously on the regibter. One of the recommendations of the last Royal Commission on Tuberculosis was that in future no cowshed, other than those already registered, should be permitted or registered in urban districts within 100 feet of any dwelling-house. In October, 1899, the Public Health Committee reported to the Council that they had resolved to observe this recommendation, and had caused a circular letter to that effect to be sent to all London cowkeepers. Tubercular disease of the udder of the cow. On the 21st March, 1899, the Public Health Committee reported to the Council that the Local Government Board had issued an order amending article 15 of the Dairies, Cowsheds, and Milkshops Order of 1885 by providing that for the purposes of paragraphs (a) and (b) of that article, reference to disease shall include, in the case of a cow, such disease of the udder as shall be certified by a veterinary surgeon to be tubercular. The article in question, so far as affected by the new Order, is as follows— 15.—If at any time disease exists among the cattle in a dairy or cowshed or other building or place, the milk of a diseased cow therein— (a) Shall not be mixed with other milk; and (b) Shall not be sold or used for human food. 52 To give effect to the new order in London, the Public Health Committee in July recommended the appointment of Mr. P. J. Simpson, M.R.C.V.S., and two assistants, for a period not exceeding two months, to examine the cows in London cowsheds and report as to cases of tubercular disease of the udder. The Committee also recommended that they be authorised, should they deem it advisable, to send milk from diseased animals to a bacteriologist for examination. These recommendations were adopted by the Council, and the result of Mr. Simpson's inspection is set out in the following report of the Public Health Committee presented to the Council in November, 1899. We reported to the Council in July last on the question of the steps to be taken to give effect in London to the Dairies, Cowsheds, and Milkshops Order of 1899, the purport of which is to provide that milk from cows certified by a veterinary surgeon to be suffering from tubercular disease of the udder shall not be mixed with other milk, and shall not be sold or used for human food. On 25th July the Council adopted our recommendation to employ Mr. P. J. Simpson, a veterinary surgeon, of Maidenhead, and two assistant senior veterinary students for a period not exceeding two months, to examine the cows in London cowsheds and report as to cases of tubercular disease of the udder. The inspection commenced on August 8th, and occupied a period of seven and a half weeks, during which time all the cows in London were inspected. The whole sum expended was £86 Os. 4d., of which £78 4s. 6d. represented salaries, and £7 15s. 10d., travelling expenses. The procedure adopted was that the two assistant inspectors preceded Mr. Simpson with instructions to minutely examine the udders of all the cows in licensed cowshed premises, and to make a daily return of every abnormality of udder discovered by them. On receipt of this return Mr. Simpson visited the premises for the purpose of determining the nature of the affection in each instance. Mr. Simpson states that this system was found to answer every purpose for which it was intended, and was conducted without inconvenience to the owners of cows. It appears from Mr. Simpson's report that in all 5,144 cows were inspected, and of these 4,464 were found to be free from disease or abnormalities of the udder. ihe following table shows the classification ot the remaining boU cows to which Mr. Simpson makes special reference— Clinically affected with tubercular disease of the udder. 1. Suspected cases of tubercular disease of the udder. 2. Subjects of acute mastitis. 3. Affected with chronic indurations of udder. 4. Giving evidence of atrophy of one or more quarters. 5. Injuries, deformities, superficial abscessesj simple eruptions, strictures and obliterations of milk ducts. 6. Ilypertrophied udders without induration. 7. Giving milk of poor quality, but owing to natural causes (commonly known as dried-off cows). 8. Recovered or removed from premises during the period between the visit of the assistant inspector and Mr. Simpson. 9. 7 5 82 165 214 38 20 112 37 680 It will thus be seen that seven cows were found to have tubercular disease of the udder, while another five were regarded as suspicious. Of the seven cows five have been sold or slaughtered and the owners of the other two have undertaken not to use their milk. Of the five Buspected cows, the milk from three has been sent to Dr. Klein for examination and the remaining two cows have been already disposed of. The milk of two of the three has been found to contain tubercle bacilli. One of these cows has been sent to the butcher, and the other it was proposed to send to the market, whence it may be expected it will be conveyed to the butcher. With regard to the 247 cows suffering from acute mastitis or affected with chronic induration of the udder, Mr. Simpson points out that such cows require periodical inspection, owing to the fact that the characteristics of minute deep-seated tubercular lesions may possibly escape detection through the mass of inflamed gland in acute mastitis, or through the increased size of the udder in many chronic indurations succeeding acute attacks. Mr. Simpson regards the animals referred to in columns 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 of the table, and which number 421, as comparatively harmless, and in the majority ot cases absolutely so. We may, however, point out that of the 37 animals mentioned in column 9 some were removed from the premises during the period between th« visit of the assistant inspector and Mr. Simpson, and it seems desirable that there should be some power to prevent the removal or disposal of suspected cows pending their examination by a veterinary surgeon, and also to prevent the sale of their milk until such examination has taken place. Having regard to the fact that seven cows have been found to be suffering from tubercular disease of the udder, and thus to be distinctly dangerous sources of infection, that the milk of two other suspected cows has been found on examination to contain tubercle bacilli, and that a large number of cows are affected with diseases of the udder which render it difficult to detect tubercular lesions, and which therefore require periodical inspection, we think, for the protection of the public that the examination of all London cows should be repeated periodically, say at intervals of three months, and cows coming under suspicion at more frequent intervals. This would involve an expenditure of about £300 per annum. It must, however, be recognised that the examination of cows in London cowsheds would be absolutely futile to prevent the sale of tuberculous milk, so long as milk from cows outside the county, which have been subjected to no inspection, is allowed to be sold in London and to be mixed with milk produced in London. The following extract from a report by Dr. Hope, medical officer of Liverpool, is well worthy of attention in this connection— "It would naturally be thought that with the very great natural advantages which the country possesses, tubercle would be less frequent in ths country than in the town. This, however, is far from being the case, and it is a most serious reflection upon the sanitation of country shippons that tubercle is found more than twice as often in samples from the country as it is in the samples from the town [where proper inspections are carried out]. Thus, out of 312 samples, 19, or 6 0 per cent., were found to be infected with tubercle; but out of 95 samples taken at the railway stations on arrival from the country 14, or 14.7 per cent,, were found to be infected." Again, as Mr. Simpson points out, although only one clinically affected udder was discovered in the whole of the Hackney cowshed premises, no less than 17, or 22 per cent., of the 77 samples taken from the milkshops in various parts of that district by Dr. King Warry in the early part of the year were certified by Dr. Allan MacFadyean, after experimental tests, to contain tubercle bacilli of virulent character, and it should be carefully noted that of these 17 samples of infected milk four only were obtained from cowkeepers' dairies in the Hackney district, and ill each of these four instances additional supplies of milk were obtained from outside sources, the remaining 13 samples of infected milk being taken from milkshops not exclusively supplied by cows within the district. 53 It is evident that further legislation is required before this state of affairs can be remedied, but much good would no doubt at once result if every urban and rural authority were to exercise the power it now possesses under the Order of 1899, of examining cows for tubercular disease of the udder and preventing the sale of milk from cows found to be suffering from such disease. We note in this connection that the last Royal Commission on Tuberculosis made the following recommendation— " 14. We recommend that, where cows housed in one district supply milk to another district, the " local authority of the district in which the cows are housed shall be bound, when required, to " supply to the local authority of the district in which the milk is sold or consumed full information " and veterinary reports regarding the condition of the cows, byres, &c., whence the milk is drawn. " Where the local authority of one district are dissatisfied with the reports so obtained, they may " apply to the Local Government Board, with a view to an independent inspection and report " being made." It must, moreover, be borne in mind that there is no power to seize a cow which is certified to be suffering from tubercular disease of the udder. Such cows should undoubtedly be slaughtered at once, and if it is then found that there has been error in the diagnosis of the disease the cowkeeper should be compensated. Nothing is more unsatisfactory than leaving in the cowshed a cow believed to be Buffering from tubercular disease of the udder while the owner considers what he will do with the animal. There is too much opportunity for such a cow to be sold and again brought into the milk business elsewhere. We also do not think it satisfactory that the flesh of cows which have suffered from tubercular disease of the udder should be sold for human food, except after inspection by some competent authority. One of the recommendations of the last Royal Commission on Tuberculosis was that all udder diseases of the cow should be notified, and the experience of the last few months has amply demonstrated the need for such requirement. If this requirement had existed in London it may be anticipated that a large proportion of the 680 cows, to which Mr. Simpson specially refers, would have been at once inspected, and the milk of those with tubercular disease of the udder excluded earlier from the milk supply. Before recommending the Council to apply for fresh legislation, we think it desirable that the Council should have a number of samples of milk taken from various parts of London and subjected to examination by an eminent bacteriologist. If the result shows that a large number of such samples is tuberculous, the case for legislation would be strengthened, and the public would be warned of the danger to which they are subjected. This danger would no doubt be obviated were all milk boiled before consumption, but English people seem loth to adopt this practice. We have ascertained that Dr. Klein would be prepared to undertake the bacteriological examination of 100 samples at an inclusive fee of 205 guineas, and we strongly recommend the Council to employ him on these terms. The annual maintenance votes provide for the expenditure of a sum not exceeding £200 for incidental expenses as to dairies, slaughterhouses, and cowhouses, and of a sum not exceeding £250 on special county account under the head of " Public Health (London) Act, 1891—Incidental expenses," and we think that these suras will be found sufficient to cover the expenditure we now propose for the present financial year. We recommend— (а) That, for the purpose of giving effect in London to the Dairies, Cowsheds, and Milkshops Order of 1899, the cows in London cowsheds be examined by a veterinary surgeon and two assistants at intervals of three mouths, and suspected cows at more frequent intervals, at an estimated cost of about £300 per annum, and that the Committee be instructed to report as to the necessary arrangements. (b) That 100 samples of milk from various parts of London be sent to Dr. Klein for bacteriological examination at an inclusive fee of £215 5s. These recommendations were adopted by the Council on the 12th December, 1899, recommendation (a) being extended by the addition of the following words—" And tbat a letter be " sent by the Clerk of the Council to the Sanitary Authorities of tbe home counties, asking what steps " they would be willing to take with a view of supplying to the Council the information recommended " in paragraph 14 of the report of the Royal Commission on Tuberculosis." The only outbreak of disease which was definitely attributed to the consumption of milk occurred in the Greenwich district. On the afternoon of July 22nd, about 110 children were taken to a school treat in the grounds of an untenanted house—" The Knoll," at Blackheath. They were given tea, consisting of tea, madeira and currant cake, scones with butter, milk, some sweetstuff and cherries, and shortly after the meal upwards of 50 of the children were seized with pain in the stomach, vomiting and diarrhoea, followed by great prostration, and in some cases by collapse. Many attacks occurred within half-an-hour of the meal. The majority of the children were taken to the Seamen's Hospital, some were taken to the Miller Hospital. None of the cases of illness proved fatal. Enquiry by Ur. Hartt, medical officer of health of Greenwich, showed that all the children attacked had partaken of milk, while not all of those who suffered had consumed the cake, scones, sweetstuff, or cherries. Enquiry was made as to the water used, and questions as to its storage were raised ; but no further doubt as to the cause of tbe outbreak could be felt when it was ascertained that cases of illness of a similar kind to that affecting the school-children had occurred on the evening of the school treat in three families obtaining milk from the local dairy from which that used at the school treat was supplied. This milk was traced, on information furnished by the secretary of the company supplying it, to a farm in Berkshire. Inspection was made of this farm by Dr. Ashby, the medical officer of health of the district, and Dr. Hamer, but no explanation of the manner of pollution of the milk was forthcoming. It transpired that some 30 or 40 imperial gallons of milk were delivered from this farm daily, sometimes at Blackheath, sometimes at Woolwich. On the day of the school treat about 28 gallons were supplied and delivered at Blackheath. It was not found possible to fully ascertain where the rest of the milk (over and above the quantity consumed at the school treat) was distributed. About 1£ gallons of milk from the farm was, however, consumed in Berkshire, without as far as could be ascertained, any ill result. There were 25 cows in milk at the farm, and the cowshed was of modern construction. No fresh cows had been recently brought to the shed, and no illness had been observed among the cows or in the milkers. I forwarded samples of the food materials supplied at the school treat, of material vomited by one of the patients, and of blood from the fingers of three of the patients, to Dr. Klein, who concluded that the cause of the outbreak was " the presence in the milk consumed at the school treat 54 of the chemical poison produced by the growth in the milk of the bacillus enteritidis sporogenes as well as infection with the active microbe." Dr. Clowes, chemist to the London County Council, examined samples of milk and other materials which were forwarded to him. The milk was tested for boric acid, salicylic acid, and formaldehyde, but nothing of the nature of a preservative was detected. In addition to this outbreak some cases of illness occurred in Hampstead in July among persons who had partaken of ices from a confectioner's shop. Dr. Gwynn states that " the symptoms were those of sickness, and severe gastro-enteritis, attended with diarrhoea." The ice in question had been sold out, but samples of three kinds of ices were found on the premises and sent to the analyst, and nothing deleterious was discovered. Offensive Businesses. During 1899 the Council's inspectors made 5,082 inspections of premises upon which offensive businesses, including that of a slaughterer of cattle, were carried on. In 10 instances legal proceeding's were instituted, and penalties were imposed by the magistrates amounting in the aggregate to £39 and £19 5s. costs; in one case the defendant undertook to discontinue the business of bone-boiling and to confine fat-melting to his old premises. The number of applications for renewal of slaughterhouse licences was 419, of which 411 were granted. The number of applications for renewal of licences to knackers' yards was 5, all of which were granted. The number of applications for the licence of slaughterhouses, and the number granted in each of the last 9 years, is shown in the following table— Year. No. of applications received. No. of licences granted. 1891 656 651 1892 547 537 1893 542 529 1894 518 506 1895 497 485 1896 478 470 1897 460 456 1898 442 429 1899 419 411 Complaints to the London County Council. During 1899 the Council received 887 applications for assistance in securing the removal of insanitary conditions. In cases concerning which representation had not already been made to the sanitary authority the applicants were advised to make such representation. In other cases the sanitary authorities were communicated with. In all cases the matter was kept under observation until the conditions complained of were remedied. In connection with these applications 1,456 inspections were made by the Council's inspectors; Nuisances. Trade nuisances. Nuisances arising from several trades are referred to in the annual reports of medical officers of health. Gas works—The medical officer of health of Kensington reports that complaints were received during the year of nuisance from the gasworks in Kensal-green. The vestry addressed a communication to the gas company informing them that observation would be made so that on recurrence of the nuisance proceedings could be instituted. The company stated in reply that the smells were caused by an elimination of sulphur impurities from the gas, according to the stringent requirements of the metropolitan gas referees. " The company suggested that the gas referees should be communicated with, with the object of a visit being made to the works on their behalf, when the company were of opinion the referees would be able to satisfy the vestry that the best possible system was being carried out; or in the case of a suggested improvement the company would immediately give instructions for its adoption." The vestry declined to adopt this course as they held that the company was responsible for preventing nuisance from the works. Chemical works—Further report as to nuisance arising from the manufacture of cyanide of potassium is made by the chief sanitary inspector of Battersea. The buildings in the immediate neighbourhood of the works had the appearance of being coloured by Prussian blue, which arose from the dust given off during the removal of prussiate of potash from one part of the works to another. Complaints were also received that the dust caused irritation of the throat. Alterations were made in the works, and the nuisance appears to have ceased. In Poplar nuisances were dealt with which arose from the escape of sulphuretted hydrogen from the condenser of sulphate of ammonia works, the escape of nitrous gas from nitric acid works and the escape of vapours of acetic acid. Other trade nuisances—In Poplar nuisances arising from varnish, oil, cocoa nut oil, cotton oil, india rubber, coffee extract, dye and asphalte works were dealt with. Smoke nuisance. In most of the reports of medical officers of health, mention is made of the action taken by the sanitary authorities for the abatement of the smoke nuisance. These reports show that proceedings before the magistrates were instituted by the sanitary authorities as follows: in Paddington in one instance; in Kensington in two instances ; in Fulham in fifteen instances; in Hammersmith in three instances ; in St. Giles in two instances; in Marylebone in two instances; in Hackney in two instances ; in Shoreditch in two instances ; in Bethnal-green in thirteen instances; in Poplar in two instances; in Rotherhithe in one instance; in Lambeth in four instances; in Battersea in seven instances ; and in Wandsworth in eighteen instances. Proceedings were successful in all but a very few cases. 55 In Holborn a special inspector is employed on this duty and a register is kept of the furnaces in the district. Of these there are now fifty-six, and all are periodically inspected. There are nine kinds of smoke consumer in use in the district and thirty-five furnaces are provided with one or other of these kinds, twenty-one having no smoke consumer. Three new smoke consumers have been supplied during the year. In Hammersmith, the work of smoke inspection devolves on the workshop inspector, and the medical officer of health reports that one officer is insufficient for the proper performance of both these duties. The medical officer of health of Lambeth reports that " speaking generally, a decided improvement has taken place in connection with nuisances from smoke in Lambeth parish, and the improvement is likely to continue as firms are beginning to realise that they will no longer be allowed, as hitherto, to pollute the atmosphere with dense volumes of black smoke, which are a nuisance and injurious and dangerous to health." The chief officer of the Public Control department of the London County Council reports that during the twelve months ending the 31st March, 1900, 719 cases of smoke nuisances were brought to the notice of sanitary authorities by the department. He adds that " so many improvements have been made in recent years in furnace construction that with proper care in stoking no nuisance need be caused." The discharge of excessive smoke should therefore be made an offence immediately punishable upon the offence being proved. Nuisance from stable manure. During the year 1899 the Public Health Committee had under consideration complaints as to nuisance from stable manure, and the means which might be adopted for obviating this nuisance. In July the Committee reported to the Council as follows— The Council frequently receives complaints as to nuisance arising from peat moss litter and other stable manure at various premises in London, and on inquiry being made into the matter, it is generally found that the nuisance occurs when the manure is removed from the receptacle into which it has been placed and in the course of such removal which may take place two or three times a week. It has been suggested that the nuisance would be obviated if the manure were removed direct from the stables and placed into properly-constructed waggons or into movable covered receptables so that it could be taken out of the yard without being further manipulated. Section 21 of the Public Health (London) Act, 1891, enables a sanitary authority to deal with any manufactory, building or premises used for any trade, business, process or manufacture, causing effluvia, on complaint made by the medical officer of health, or any two legally-qualified medical practitioners, or by any ten inhabitants of the district. The solicitor advises that, failing other means of remedying the evil, a court might well be asked, in the case of livery stable, cab or omnibus proprietors, and other similar businesses, to act under that section in the matter, but that in his opinion the case could also be dealt with under the ordinary nuisance provisions of the Act (sections 2, 3, 4 and 5) as being a nuisance which, in the opinion of the sanitary authority, is likely to recur, and that a court might under those sections be asked to make a prohibition order which would probably have the effect of compelling the occupier to make some such arrangement to obviate the nuisance as has been suggested. We think much good might result if sanitary authorities were to endeavour to deal with recurring nuisances from stable manure in one or other of the ways mentioned, and we have accordingly given instructions for a circular letter to be sent to them on the subject. We report our action for the information of the Council. The medical officers of health of Paddington and Kensington state that the practice of transferring manure direct from the stable to the cart is adopted in these districts. In Paddington, " Carts are being slowly and gradually substituted for manure receptacles in accordance with the foregoing principle. By loading the manure direct from the stalls into the cart and taking the cart away without disturbing the manure, the diffusion of that particularly offensive odour which is peculiar to peat manure is avoided." In Kensington, the vestry " induced the London General Omnibus Company to place a vehicle in each of their yards in this parish for the reception of the refuse on removals from the stables so that it might be taken away without further disturbance. The London Road Car Company, and other large proprietors of horses, subsequently adopted this plan of removal with satisfactory results, few complaints having since been received." Similar arrangements have been made in connection with some stables in Shoreditch with good results. The abolition of dung pits and the substitution of receptacles above the ground, to comply with the Council's by-law, has made considerable progress in London. In Kensington, Dr. Dudfield, reporta 1,563 iron cages have been erected, 725 brick receptacles have been abolished and 326 have been reconstructed. Of sunken pits 566 have been abolished, and 74 have under special circumstances been improved and allowed to remain. In Chelsea, Dr. Parkes reports, iron cages resting on a cemented base have been very largely adopted. A few sunken dung pits remain in places where a receptacle above the surface of the ground cannot be provided. The reports of medical officers of health indicate that greater efforts were made during the year to secure the frequent removal of manure, and in some districts prosecutions were instituted with this object, thus in Marylebone a number of summonses all leading to convictions were taken out against the occupiers of certain mews and in some other districts persons negligent in this respect were fined. It appears, however, that owners of manure have increasing difficulties in complying with the requirements of sanitary authorities and the need for an organised system of removal is evident. The medical officer of health of Hampstead writes, that " No less than 389 orders were necessary for the removal of manure. Private owners of stables appear to have more and more difficulty in securing the prompt removal of manure, especially in hay and harvest time. The sanitary authority has power under section 36 of the Public Health (London) Act, 1891, to collect and remove refuse of this sort within their district, but has no power to charge for such removal." This matter was discussed in my annual report for the year 1898, in which year it was the subject of a report by the Public Health Committee to the Council. Although the nuisance caused by the use of peat moss manure in some stables has been materially reduced by the adoption of the method of placing the manure directly into a cart when it 56 is removed from the stall, the necessity has become evident of placing offensive manure under restrictions as to the manner of removal. The Public Health Committee had therefore under consideration during the year the amendment of the by-law relating to the carriage of offensive matter through the streets. The course indicated is undoubtedly that manure which is offensive should not be exempted as at present from all the conditions which are required in connection with the removal of other offensive matter. The following draft by-law was accordingly forwarded to the sanitary authorities for their observation— Every person who shall remove or carry, or cause to be removed or carried, by road or water, in or through London any fæcal or offensive or noxious matter or liquid, whether such matter or liquid shall be in course of removal or carriage from within or without or through London, shall use or cause to be used therefor a suitable carriage or vessel, properly constructed and furnished with a sufficient covering so as to prevent the escape of any matter or liquid therefrom, and so as to prevent any nuisance arising therefrom. Such person shall not remove or carry, or cause to be removed or carried, such matter or liquid by road in or through London, except during the following periods, viz.— Between 5 o'clock a.m. and 10 o'clock a.m. ; or during the period commencing two hours before sunset and ending one hour after sunset, in any day during the months of March, April, May, June, July, August. September, and October. Between 6 o'clock a.m. and 11 o'clock a.m.; or during the period commencing two hours before sunset and ending one hour after sunset, in any day during the months of November, December, January and February. Such persons shall not remove or carry, or cause to be removed or carried, such matter or liquid by water in or through London, except during the period commencing at sunrise and ending at sunset in any day. This by-law shall not apply to any person removing or carrying manuie consisting only of horse dung, with a suitable proportion of straw, and shall not apply to any person removing or carrying in a suitable vessel, as aforesaid, manure consisting of horse dung and litter other than straw. The by-law at present in force is as follows— Every person who shall remove or carry, by road or water, in or through London, any faecal or offensive or noxious matter or liquid, whether such matter or liquid shall be in course of removal or carriage from within or without or through London, shall not remove or carry such matter or liquid in or through London except between the hours of 4 o'clock and 10 o'clock in the forenoon during the months of March, April, May, June, July, August, September and October, and except between the hours of 6 o'clock in the forenoon and 12 o'clock at noon during the months of November, December, January, and February. Such person shall use a suitable carriage or vessel properly constructed and furnished with a sufficient covering, so as to prevent the escape of any such matter or liquid therefrom, and so as to prevent any nuisance arising therefrom. Provided that this by-law shall not apply to the carriage of horse dung manure. Removal of offensive matter. Section 33 of the Public Health (London) Act empowers the owners of trade refuse to require the sanitary authority to remove it, on payment of a reasonable sum for the removal, such sum in case of disputes to be settled by the order of a petty sessional court. The sanitary authority may not claim to effect such removal as a right and hence the ability of an authority to undertake the scavenging of their district of offensive trade refuse, is dependent on agreement with the owners of the refuse. The question whether the sanitary authority should undertake the work of removal of fish offal has from time to time engaged the attention of medical officers of health, and was during the year 1899 the subject of report by the medical officer of health of Poplar, who thus reported on the collection of fish offal by the Woolwich Local Board. With respect to the Committee's suggestion that the Board should collect the fish offal of the district, the matter having been referred to the dock and medical officers to make enquiries and to report, I interviewed the clerk and surveyor to the Woolwich Local Board, which authority collects and destroys, as trade refuse, its fish offal. In Woolwich the local board supplies, free of cost, galvanized iron receptacles with airtight lids. There are 140 of these receptacles, 70 of which are collected every day, and 70 left in their places, some shops having two or more according to their wants. The collection and distribution of receptacles occupies one half day, and is carried out by means of one trolly drawn by a horse; two men accompany the trolly, one in charge of the horse, and the other collects and distributes the receptacles. The lids of the charged receptacles are not removed until the " destructor " is reached, when the offal is mixed with the horse refuse, to be burnt, on the tipping platforms. The man who collects and distributes the receptacles is engaged during the afternoon in cleansing and disinfecting the receptacles previous to their distribution next day. No payment for collection has been made up to the present, but it is under the consideration of the local board to collect also the butchers' offal, as well as the fish, and to make a charge at so much per bushel so as to cover expenses. This subject was also under the consideration of the Vestry of Battersea, and the medical officer of health of that district reports that a scheme was prepared showing that if the vestry undertook the collection the net cost, alter the sale of the offal, would be about £164 per annum. The further consideration of the subject was adjourned sine die. Dr. Kempster states that at present the removal is effected by several manufacturers of guano and other products, who receive varying sums from the fishmongers for such removal. There is no doubt that the method adopted in Woolwich of removing fish offal in suitable metal receptacles with close-fitting covers, provided by the collector, should be adopted throughout London ; and the Public Hpalth Committee of the Council had before them the question whether it was competent for the Council, under their power of making by-laws as the removal of offensive 57 matter, to require by by-law the adoption of this course. The Committee was, however, advised that legislation would be required for this purpose. I was instructed to learn from medical officers of health whether their experience indicated the desirability of this course being taken, and the majority of their replies were in the affirmative. In a number of instances prosecutions were instituted by the sanitary authorities for failure to comply with the requirements of the Council's by-laws as to the removal of offensive matter. Thus, in Fulham, prosecutions were instituted in five cases, in Chelsea in three, in Marylebone in four, in Hackney in seven, in Bermondsey in eight, in Lambeth in two, in Battersea in three, in Wandsworth in six, in Greenwich in one case. Removal of house refuse. The by-laws of the Council made under the Public Health (London) Act require the removal of the house refuse from all premises not less frequently than once a week. The efficiency with which this work is carried out depends upon the willingness of the sanitary authority to provide a sufficient administration for this purpose and upon the co-operation of householders. The Council has endeavoured, by inquiry in different parts of London as to the results obtained, and by representations to sanitary authorities, to secure due compliance with the provisions of the by-laws. The scavenging of London at the present time shows a vast improvement upon that of former years. The effect of the introduction into a district of a system of weekly calls at each house for the purpose of removal of refuse instead of the old method of the dust-cart perambulating the streets and calling only at houses in which the need for collection is manifested by the exhibition of a D-card or on request of the householder, is shown by the reduction in the number of " complaints" dealt with by the sanitary authorities. The medical officer of health of Islington includes in his report a table showing that the number of complaints has in that district fallen from 10,138 in 1891 to 262 in 1899. The principal difficulty which is met with is due to the unwillingness of householders to permit the dustman to remove the refuse when he calls for this purpose. In Hackney where the complaints numbered 220 in 1899, there were, the medical officer of health states, as many as 458,770 refusals in that year by the householders to permit their dust receptacles to be emptied. It is evidently necessary that steps should be taken to overcome this unwillingness, which adds materially to the cost of collection and is unfair to the ratepayers who give facilities to the dust collector to perform his duty. Such refusal constitutes " obstruction " under the Public Health (London) Act, and the person guilty of it is liable to penalty. There is little doubt if this penalty were recovered in certain cases, and the intention of the authorities to prosecute were made known in the district, the obstruction would cease and the work of the scavenger be greatly facilitated. It is much to be desired that this course should be adopted. Facilities for successful scavenging would be increased if householders would provide themselves with movable receptacles in substitution for the old fixed receptacles which cannot be emptied without difficulty, and which retain large quantities of refuse. The Council's by-law requires that all new receptacles shall be of the movable variety, and the reports of medical officers of health show that these have in large degree replaced fixed receptacles. In Chelsea the medical officer of health states, " metal pails for the reception of house refuse are now very largely in use in place of fixed brick bins, and are not only far more cleanly, but must materially lighten the labour of dust collection by the vestry's workmen." The Council's by-law has now been in force for seven years, and the question may well be considered whether the time has not come when all houses throughout should be provided with movable receptacles. It would probably be found that the number of persons who would be affected by such requirement would not be so large as to render its enforcement impracticable. A further power is needed to enable sanitary authorities to require the removal of fixed where movable receptacles have been provided. There appears to be no power to make a by-law for this purpose, and legislation is therefore needed. The Council has exercised such power as it does possess by making a by-law prohibiting the further use of a fixed receptacle under these circumstances. It is deserving of notice that the St. Giles District Board has endeavoured to institute a system of bi-weekly collection of house refuse during the summer months. The result appears not to have been altogether satisfactory, owing to the disinclination of the contractor's employees to comply with the Board's desires, as they were paid piece work, and found that the time required to get a load was greater than before. The contractor raised the payments to them, but their unwillingness continued. Another difficulty arose from the householders', or rather it is stated their domestics', unwillingness to give facilities for the removal. The Board is wisely continuing its efforts to secure this better scavenging, and it is obvious that they can overcome the first difficulty by abandoning the system of employing a contractor and the taking of the work into their own hands. The second difficulty is no doubt in the main due to custom, and may be regarded as temporary. In Plumstead the record is less satisfactory. The medical officer of health thus reports on the dust collection of that district— There was no improvement in the dust collection as regards method, it having been done, as before, in a slovenly manner. As regards regularity, it quite broke down again at Christmas. 261 complaints were received during the year of non-removal, and, unfortunately, the poorer class of tenants, at whose houses there is likely to be most harm from accumulation of dust, do not usually send complaints. For the discovery of neglect to collect from these we have to depend, in the absence of a dust inspector, on the chance call of a sanitary inspector. For some weeks after Christmas the vestry had to supplement the dust collection by direct labour, the organisation of which mainly fell on the chief sanitary inspector. The contractor having been mulcted in £132 2s. 7d. costs of work done, and £114 fine for breach of contract, a new contractor has recently been appointed at £2,660 a year, compared with £1,100 which was paid to the late contractor. [8] 58 In Holborn there was failure to secure full compliance with the Council's by-law requiring a weekly collection of dust. The following paragraph appears in the report of the medical officer of health of that district. Since the 25th March, 1896, the Board's contract has provided for the removal of house refuse at least once a week. Many of the notices that dust has not been removed show that the contract is not strictly carried out, and the contractor's attention to the matter has frequently been requested by the Board. The first quarter of the year there was such a large increase in the number of notices that the contractor was requested to appoint another foreman to attend to the removal of dnst. Although the number of notices in the latter half of the year were much diminished, the total for the year was 988; in 1898 the number was 849. However, in 1896, the number was 1,361, in 1895 as many as 2,114. The Board is endeavouring to have this work and the cleansing of the streets, &c , more satisfactorily carried out by paying; the contractor a larger amount and by the appointment of an inspector of cleansing in addition to the street inspector. Deposit and disposal of refuse. The medical officer of health of Lambeth, in which are situated dust-yards and destructors belonging to other sanitary authorities and to contractors, reports that great improvement was noticed during the year in the condition of the various refuse and manure depots. Nuisance arising from the dust destructor belonging to the Clerkenwell Vestry, and situated at Phoenix-wharf, Commercialroad, led to the requirement of improvements which were carried out. The deposit of refuse in Plumstead was the subject of complaint to the Council, and inquiry was made into it, with the result that the Public Health Committee in May presented the following report to the Council— On 28th December last complaint was made to the Council that the Yestry of Plumstead were infringing the Council's by-laws by depositing house refuse in the Church-manorway in close proximity to inhabited houses. On the deposit being visited by the Council's inspector it was ascertained that the complaint was well founded, and a letter was thereupon addressed to the vestry, who replied that house refuse had been deposited without their knowledge and that they regretted the occurrence, but that the deposit was never a nuisance and had been deeply buried in sound soil. From a further inspection made recently it appears that no refuse is now being deposited and that the old deposit has been covered with road scrapings. The medical officer reports that it is not at all clear that nuisance will not arise from this deposit when the weather becomes warm, and he states that in his view what has been done is an infringement of the Council's by-law which prohibits the deposit within 300 yards of inhabited houses of matter liable to become offensive as well as matter which is actually offensive at the time of deposit. Our attention has now been called to another deposit which also constitutes an infringement of the Council's by-laws. This is on marsh land north of the railway and within 50 yards of inhabited houses. The Council's inspector on visiting the spot found an area of 60 by 44 yards, upon which the parish yard will be situated, being filled in to a depth of a few yards with slop and road scrapings containing vegetable and other matter, and then covered over with about the same depth of gravel. At the time of the inspector's visit a man in the employ of the vestry was at work on the shoot, levelling it. A considerable surface of slop was uncovered. The occupier of a neighbouring house complained that his premises were infested with flies during the summer months. It thus appears that, although the vestry a few weeks ago stated that the deposit in Church-manorway was made without their knowledge and that they regretted the occurrence, another deposit very near to inhabited houses is now being effected with the full knowledge of the vestry's officials. We may point out that similar infringements of the by-laws have occurred on repeated occasions during the past few years, and have led to much correspondence between the vestry and the Council. Thus in 1893, complaint was made of the deposit of refuse in Roydene-road, Slade-valley, and on our writing to the Plumstead District Board on the subject, they replied that they had ordered the deposit to be discontinued. A few months later, however, further complaint was made, and it was discovered that refuse had again been deposited at this spot. Again, in 1894, it was found that an embankment across the Slade-ravine was being made of house refuse. The vestry made a special appeal to be allowed to continue this, and, as they assured us that they would burn all vegetable matter and mix every load of house refuse with two loads of earth, we stated that, having regard to these precautions, we thought the work might proceed without infringement of the by-laws. Some months afterwards, however, it was ascertained that unsorted refuse containing a large percentage of vegetable matter was being deposited and covered with gravel, and we were again under the necessity of writing to the vestry on the subject. In 1895 serious nuisance was caused by the deposit of house refuse on land known as Harper's estate, and after correspondence with the vestry, we found it necessary to report the matter to the Council, and advise it to take action, in default of the vestry, against their contractor. The Council adopted the recommendation, but before proceedings could betaken the deposit was stopped and covered in with earth; and on an undertaking being given by the contractor and landowner that it should be left undisturbed for two years, the Council decided to take no further action. About a year afterwards it was reported to us that the deposit had been cut into notwithstanding the undertaking, but, after correspondence with the landowner, we did not find the matter sufficiently serious to justify proceedings. From these instances it will be seen that we have had considerable difficulty with the vestry in the matter of the enforcement of the Council's by-law, and that what has usually occurred has been that when attention has been called to a particular spot, the deposit has been discontinued and covered in, and shortly afterwards recommenced either in the same or another place. It is evident that the vestry are not making any serious effort to secure the observance of the by-law, and in the circumstances we think that the Council should authorise us to take such proceedings as are necessary in the future, either against or in default of the vestry. The delay consequent upon reporting the matter to the Council will then be obviated, and if nuisance arises in the hot weather, it will be possible for us at once to place the matter in the hands of the solicitor. We recommend that the Committee be authorised to take proceedings against or in default of the Vestry of Plumstead respecting the deposit of offensive refuse in contravention of the Council's by-laws, should necessity arise in the future. The report of the Committee was adopted by the Council. No proceedings under this resolution have as yet been instituted. The condition of streets, due to the deposit by costermongers and others of rubbish, including vegetable matter, was considered by the Vestries of Hackney and Camberwell, and instructions were given for the issue of notices that offenders against the vestries' by-law relating to the deposit of refuse in the streets would be prosecuted. 59 Flooding from seuiers. In December the Council had under consideration a report by the Main Drainage Committee referring to the flooding of houses by sewage, and which stated that the Council's engineer was of opinion that in order to bring the main drainage system up to date, works, estimated to cost about £2,947,000, should be carried out by the Council. These works were as follows— North of the Thames. (a) Barking to Old Ford, two new sewers and extra works at Barking £725,000 (h) New sewer between high-level and middle-level sewers 270,000 (c) New sewer between middle-level and low-level sewers 500,000 (d) Extension of middle-level sewer to Scrubs-lane 12,000 (e) Additional pumping machinery at Abbey-mills 120,000 £1,627,000 Soidh of the Thames. (/) Crossness to Deptford, new sewer (low level) £500,000 (g) Crossness to Catford, new sewer (high level) 520,000 (h) Deptford to Battersea, new sewer 300,000. £1,320,000 Total for both sides of the Thames £2,947,000 The report stated th&t " while convinced of the necessity of ultimately constructing the whole of the above new sewers and of certain extensions of the same, the engineer suggests that, in the first instance, only those between Barking and Abbey-mills (part of (a)), Crossness and Deptford, and Crossness and Catford should be put in hand, inasmuch as the sewers near the outfalls must be completed before those more to the west are commenced." The resolutions adopted by the Council were— (а) That the estimate submitted by the Finance Committee be approved, that two additional outfall sewers, each 9 feet in diameter, be constructed between the Abbey-mills pumping station and the Barking outfall, and that the engineer be instructed to prepare the necessary drawings of the new sewers and other incidental works at the Barking outfall, together with detailed estimates of the cost. (б) That the estimate submitted by the Finance Committee be approved, tjjat an additional outfall sewer, 11 feet 6 inches in diameter, be constructed between the Deptford pumping station and the Crossness outfall works, and that the engineer be instructed to prepare the necessary drawings of the sewer and incidental works at Crossness, together with detailed estimates of the cost. (c) That the estimate submitted by the Finance Committee be approved, that a portion of the suggested new sewer from the Crossness outfall to Catford, so far as that sewer will be placed over the proposed new sewer from Crossness to Deptford, be constructed, and that the engineer be instructed to prepare the necessary drawings of the sewer and incidental works at Crossness, together with detailed estimates of the cost. The medical officer of health of Kensington gives account of flooding of the basement of houses in July and September, which he states is due to the insufficiency of the main sewers—more particularly the Counter's creek sewer—to carry off storm water. He mentions the steps taken by the vestry to urge the Council to provide a remedy, and adds that " the Council acquired the necessary land at Lots-road, Chelsea, and the work has been put in hand." In Newington, the medical officer of health states that, " We know that grave pollution of the subsoil of the parish does take place during storms by the number of houses more or less flooded by sewage." In Battersea, complaints as to flooding of 833 houses were received. Of these it was found that in 43 houses little or no flooding had occurred, and in 93 other cases the flooding was due either to surface water only, or the sewage flooding was confined to yards and areas. " In the majority of cases, however, sewage flooding of a serious character was found to have occurred, in many houses rising above the damp courses, and in a considerable number saturating the wooden floors, the resulting bad effects being maintained for a long time; the solid constituents of sewage being to a varying extent deposited on the soil beneath the flooring, the smells therefrom being a subject of general complaint." Inquiry as to sickness in the flooded houses was made, and the medical officer of health states that, " It was exceedingly difficult to prove that this flooding had been the direct cause of any considerable degree of sickness ; nevertheless, many cases of sore throat, rheumatism, bronchitis, and other affections of the respiratory organs occurred after the date of the floodings at the premises visited ; and although these diseases and ailments were such as might arise from many other causes, yet they had occurred since the flooding," The medical officer of health of Plumstead states that flooding of houses occurred in Benares-road and Reidhaven-road; improvements were made in the sewers. Nuisance from sewer ventilators. Nuisance from sewer ventilators is discussed in many of the reports of medical office: s of health. In Kensington, the medical officer of health writes: " During the hot and dry summer weather numerous complaints were received of offensive smells in the streets proceeding from untrapped gullies and sewer ventilating openings in the roadways." The nuisance occurred in connection with sewers under both the Council's and vestry's jurisdiction. The Sanitary Committee inquired of the sanitary authorities of thirty towns as to their experience in ventilating sewers. With respect to nuisance from street gullies, Dr. Dudfield recommended the substitution of syphon-trapped for brick catch-pit gullies. In Hampstead complaints as to nuisance from gullies and gratings were less frequent during the year. In Lambeth the vestry adopted recommendations of the medical officer and surveyor as to the method 60 of ventilating sewers, which included the provision of open ventilating grids at distances apart not more than 100 feet and the use of shafts in addition thereto. In Greenwich the medical officer of health received a large number of complaints from different parts of the parish with reference to nuisance from sewer ventilators. He states that " At the extreme (eastern) boundary of the parish about Bridge-terrace the smell has been very bad, and there has been a great deal of sickness there." The matter was brought to the knowledge of the Council's engineer. In Plumstead many complaints were received as to nuisance from sewer ventilatofs. The medical officer of health states that " these complaints are however becoming less frequent, as road level ventilators are being clcseJ, and shafts erected to take their place." Combined, drains. The difficulties of dealing with systems of combined drainage continue to be referred to in the reports of medical officers of health. In Paddington " combined drainage has demanded much time and expenditure during the year." In Hammersmith " tenders for the reconstruction of 47 systems of combined drainage at a cost of £1,066 were accepted by the vestry during the year, and the sum of £175 was paid to owners of houses in respect of drainage work executed by them, in compliance with the notices of the vestry, on combined drains which were sewers within the meaning of the Metropolis Local Management Act." In Chelsea the majority of the combined drains existing have either been authorised by the vestry or by the Metropolitan Commissioner of Sewers, and hence in the period 1896-9 the cost to the vestry lias been only £285 17s. 2d. In Bethnal-green the reconstruction of systems of combined drainage cost the vestry over £1,100 during 1899. In Lambeth in only a comparatively few cases the vestry had to bear the cost of reconstruction. In Battersea the vestry has incurred an-expenditure of £'4,132 on reconstruction of combined drainage in the period 1897-9. Deposit of plans of drainage. A Bill promoted by the Council, requiring the deposit with sanitary authorities of plans of drainage of buildings, became law during 1899. The Bill amends the Metropolis Local Management Act, 1855, and is entitled the Metropolis Management Acts Amendment (By-laws) Act, 1899. The principal section is as follows— The powers of the London County Council for making by-laws under section 202 of the Metropolis Management Act, 1855, shall extend and apply to authorise the Council to make by-laws for the following purpose. Requiring persons about to construct, re-construct, or alter the pipes, drains, or ether means of communicating wii h sewers, or the traps and apparatus connected therewith, to deposit with the sanitary authority of the district such plans, sections, and particulars of the proposed construction, re-construction, or alteration as may be necessary for the purpose of ascertaining whether such construction, re-construction,'or alteration is in accordance with the statutory provisions relative thereto, and with any by-laws made under the said section. Provided that any such b3 -laws shall not require the deposit of any plan or section in the case of any repair which does not involve the alteration or the entire re-construction of any such pipe, drain, or other means of communicating with sewers, or the traps and apparatus connected therewith. Provided that any such by-laws shall not require the deposit of plans, sections and particulars before the work is commenced in any case in which the alteration of drains must be carried out at once, but the by-laws may require such deposit to be made within a limited time from the commencement of the work. The river Lea. In my last report I referred to the statements of the medical officer of health of Hackney, concerning nuisance from the river Lea. Dr. Warry includes in his report for the year 1899 a report by the Public Health Committee of the vestry on a reference relating to the " Lea and Roding Valleys Main Outfall Sewer," in which it is stated that " the main sources of pollution affecting the Hackney district are now the effluents from the sewage farm of Walthamstow and the sewage works of Leyton. . . . An additional source of pollution below Hackney is the effluent from the West Ham sewage works." The Lea Conservancy Board had, the report says, convened a conference of delegates from the districts abutting on the river Lea and others interested, to consider what steps should be taken towards dealing with the sewage from such districts, when it was decided to adopt the main drainage scheme for the Lea and Roding valleys as the best way of dealing with the matter. Two engineers were deputed to prepare schemes for the same. The Public Health Committee of the vestry after advice from their surveyor, expressed their preference for one scheme and recommended the vestry to petition the Local Government Board in favour of it and to ask the County Council and other bodies to support the petition. Dr. Warry states that no further progress has been made since the adoption of this report, that, in fact, it appears that several of the riparian authorities who were in favour of the adoption of a drainage scheme have fallen away from their first views and may now be regarded as opponents of any scheme of drainage, and that it now remains for some central authority to overcome the inertia of the local authorities contributing to the pollution of the river and that of the Lea Conservancy Board. Housing of the Working Classes. During the year the Housing of the Working Classes Committee had under consideration several representations by medical officers of health under Part I. of the Housing of the Working Classes Act. The areas thus represented were the following— Aylesbury-place area, Clerkenwell—This area was represented to the Council in December, 1897. It abuts on St. Jolm's-street, and comprises houses in Aylesbury-place, Bishop's-court, Jerusalempassage, St. John's-square, Albemarle-street and Aylesbury-street. The frontages consist very largely of commercial premises, at the rear of which were insanitary courts and alleys. The population of the area 61 numbered 511 persons, and the mean death rate obtaining for the period 1895-99 was 30*5 per 1,000 living compared with 2T9 for the parish of Clerkenwell. The deaths under one year of age per 1,000 births in the area for the same period were 368 compared with 189 in Clerkenwell. The Council, on the recommendation of the Committee, resolved that the area was one which should be dealt with under Part II. of the Act, but in March, 1899, upon further consideration, instructed the Committee to prepare a scheme under Part I. for dealing with the insanitary courts and alleys. In July the Council resolved to acquire the frontages in St. John-street, between Aylesbury-street and Albeinarlestreet, for the purpose of widening and giving opportunity for the construction of a double line of tramways, and hence the Committee prepared a scheme dealing with the houses in Aylesbnry-place, Bishop's-court, Jerusalem-court, and the east side of Jerusalem-passage. Union-buildings area, Holborn—This area was under the consideration of the Committee in 1890, and a draft scheme was prepared for its improvement. The Committee could not, however, at the time provide for the number of persons displaced, and hence the Committee were unable to recommend the Council to adopt a scheme. The area abuts on Portpool-lane, Leather-lane and Verulamstreet, and comprises Union-buildings, Providence-place, Crown-court, Half Moon-court and Dovecourt. The death rate obtaining in the area for the period 1896-8 works out at 46T per 1,000 living, the corresponding death rate for the district of Holborn being 23'8. The changes which had taken place in the area since 1890 enabled the Committee now to present a scheme for its improvement, and to utilize land which was available for rehousing for the accommodation for some proportion of the number of persons who would be displaced from the Aylesbury-place area. The number of persons of the working-class to be displaced from the Aylesbury-place area was 495, for 200 of whom accommodation would be provided on that area, leaving a deficit of 295. The number of persons of the working-class to be displaced from the Union-buildings area was 907, the site affording accommodation for 1,200. Hence the two areas together would provide accommodation for all but two of the number displaced. The estimate of the gross cost of the property to be acquired was £220,500, the recoupment by sale of surplus lands and value of housing sites £30,700, the whole net cost being £189,800. On October 23rd the Council passed the necessary resolution for the improvement of the two areas. Webber-road, King's Bench-walk, and Grotto-place areas, St. George-the-Martyr, Southward— The Webber-row area is about two acres in extent and comprises houses in Webber row and street, Williams-place, Spiller's-court, Emmett's-yard, Jolin's-place, and Waterloo-roadk for the most part insanitary. In the centre of the area is a large garden in which are situated eight almshouses. In proximity to houses in the area are a number of insanitary stables. The number of persons of the working-class resident in the area is 245. The total population of the area was 310, and the death rate for the period 1896-9, 30*6 per 1,000 living, as compared with 24*9 per 1,000 for the parish. The King's Bench-walk area is nearly five acres in extent, and comprises, in addition to a London School Board school and the Council's Green-street dwellings, about 150 houses, mostly insanitary, situated in King'3 Bench-walk, Pocock-street, Green-street, Upper Green-street, Friar-street, Wellington-place, Bean-street and Bird-court. The number of persons of the working-class resident in the area is 658. The death rate in the area for the period 1896-9 was 30*5 per 1,000 living, as compared with 24*9 per 1,000 for the parish. The Grotto-place area is about 2i acres in extent, and comprises houses in Grotto-place, Caffrey-place, Queen's-court, King's-court, Great Suffolk-street, Sturge-street, Goldsmith-place, Princessplace, and Lant-place. The houses are badly arranged, and mostly old two-storey cottages, with much open space about many of them. The population of the area is 1,077, and the death rate for the period 1896-98 is 18*9 per 1,000 living. The Committee presented to the Council a scheme for the improvement of the King's Benchwalk and Webber-row areas, which provided for the housing of 1,750 persons, 750 on the Webber-row area and 1,000 on the King's Bench-walk area. The estimated cost was as follows—Cost of property, £183,000 ; cost of street widenings, £4,950 ; recoupment by sale of surplus land and value of housing sites, £35,000; total net cost, £152,950. On the 24th October the Council passed the necessary resolutions for the improvement of the Webber-row and King's Bench-walk areas. Burford's-court, Tucker's-court and Favonia-street areas, Poplar—The Burford's-court area comprises seventeen insanitary houses in Burford's-court, Ashton-street and Bobin Hood-lane, the number of persons of the working class resident in the area is 74. The death rate in the period 1894-99 was 25'1 per 1,000 as compared with a death rate of 20*9 per 1,000 in the district of Poplar. The Tucker's-court area comprises 25 houses in Tucker's-court, Dingle-court and High-street in an insanitary condition. The number of persons of the working class occupying the area was 114. The death rate in the area in 1894-99 was 25*6 per 1,000, that of children under 5 years of age, being 108*7 as compared with 70*0 in Poplar. The Favonia-street area comprised only a group of sixteen insanitary cottages in Nelson-court and Sarah-place. The number of persons of the working class occupying the area was 53. The Committee proposed to rehouse on the neighbouring Anne-street area 155 persons of the 241 displaced from the three areas, and to provide accommodation for 114 on a portion of the Preston-road site, already in possession of the Council, and which is little more than a mile from the Tucker's-court area. The Favonia-street area was to be devoted to a playground, which was much needed in the district, and the Burford's-court and Tucker's-court sites to be sold for commercial purposes. The estimated gross cost of the property to be acquired was £16,000 ; the estimated cost of laying out the playground was £500 ; the recoupment by sale of surplus lands £3,200, the total net cost being £13,300, The Council passed the necessary resolution for giving effect to these recommendations on the 17th October. Garden-row, Roby-street, Baltic-street, and Honduras-street, areas, St. Luke—The Council received representations as to 10 areas in this district. The Garden-row area is nearly an acre in extent, and 62 comprises 68 houses fronting in Lever-street between Centr.il-street and Europa-place with the houses in that street and place, and with houses in Garden-row and Clarence-place in the rear, and in Clarencestreet which leads into Garden-row. The houses generally are small and in bad repair and with small yard spaces. The population of this area is 407, and the death rate, 1895-99, was 44"2 per 1,000. The Roby-street area comprises houses in Anchor-yard, Roby-street and Richard's-place; it is about three-quarters of an acre in extent, and the houses generally are insanitary and in bad repair, with small yard space at the rear. The population of the area is 218, and the death rate for theperiod 1895-99 works out at 32T per 1,000 living. The Baltic-street area is about two-thirds of an acre in extent, and comprises houses in Bullcourt, Baltic-court, Little Baltic-street, St. Thomas-place, Middle-row and Baltic-street. The houses are in an insanitary condition, in most cases old and worn and without sufficient light and air space. The population of the area is 351 persons, and the death-rate for the period 1895-99 was 42'2 per 1,000 living. The Honduras-street area is about one-quarter of an acre in extent, and comprises 17 houses in a more or less insanitary condition, and without sufficient light and air space, situated in Hondurasstreet, Baltic-street and Golden-lane. The population of the area numbers 217 persons, and the deathrate for the period 1895-9 was 40*6 per 1,000 living. The Committee presented to the Council a scheme for the improvement of these areas, which provided for the housing of 1,193 persons of the working class. The estimated cost was as follows— Cost of land, &c., £172,000; cost of roads, £3,750; less estimated value of building sites, £30,900 ; total net cost, £'144,850. Nightingale-street area, St. Marylebone—In November, 1899, the Housing of the Working Classes Committee presented the following report to the Council with regard to this area— In November, 1898, our attention was called by the medical officer of St. Marylebone to an insanitary area in Nightingale-street and Samford-street in that parish. The area was the subject of a special report to the Yestry of St. Marylebone by their medical officer, and subsequently in December, 1898, the vestry approached the Council with a view to the area being dealt with by way of scheme under the Housing of the Working Classes Act, 1890. The Council's medical officer reported that the faults of the majority of the houses were (a) defective condition of repair, and (b) insufficient ykrd space at the rear. Nightingale-street is only 25 feet wide, and the population of the area is 620. The death rates, calculated over the last eight years, were, for Nightingale-street at all ages, 35'3, and for children under five years of age 109'9 per 1,000, while the corresponding death rates for the parish of St. Marylebone were 18'3 and 59'6 respectively. The medical officer was of opinion that if the persons displaced could be satisfactorily re-housed there would be advantage in dealing with the area under a scheme. Upon referring to the ground plan of London it was ascertained that the whole of the property was held on lease from the trustees of the Portman estate, of which it formed part. We therefore at once entered into communication with the agent to Lord Portman, the owner of the first estate of freehold, with a view to ascertaining whether he would be prepared to co-operate with the Council in carrying out a scheme as contemplated by sub-section 3 of section 6 of the Housing of the Working Classes Act, 1890. The Council will no doubt learn with satisfaction that our proposals were met throughout in a most courteous and willing spirit. The result of the negotiations is that if the Council will pass the necessary resolution to enable the area to be dealt with, and acquire all the leasehold interests in the property, Lord Portman will repay the Council all its costs and expenses in so doing. It is proposed that the area shall be dealt with as follows—Nightingale-street will be closed; the portion of the area adjoining the Board School in Apland-street will, subject to agreement with the School Board, be utilised as a joint playground for the school children and the children of the tenants of the dwellings to be erected on the remainder of the area; and Lord Portman will provide dwellings on the remainder of the area for the accommodation of as many persons as will be displaced. The net cost to Lord Portman is estimated at £6,000, and the gross cost, which must in the first instance be paid by the Council, but which will be repaid by Lord Portman, is estimated at £10,800. We have had a scheme prepared for giving effect to the proposals outlined above, and we submit the same for the seal of the Council. It must, however, be pointed out that should Lord Portman be unable from any cause to carry out this part of the scheme the whole of the cost thereof will have to be borne by the Council. We think it right to inform the Council of this risk, but we have no doubt that the Council will still wish to encourage, on the part of land owners in London, every such attempt to themselves deal with their own insanitary property as is now being made by Lord Portman. We may mention that the official representation upon which we are able to base the proposal to deal with this area under part I. of the Act was made by the medical officer of St. Marylebone, on 1st November, 1899. We have supplied the Finance Committee with the necessary particulars, and they will submit an estimate in due course. We recommend— (a) That the requisite resolution under section 4 of the Housing of the Working Classes Act, 1890, be passed by the Council with respect to the Nightingale-street area, St. Marylebone, and that the seal of the Council be fixed to such resolution. (b) That the seal of the Council be affixed to the scheme approved by the Housing of the Working Classes Committee for the improvement of the Nightingale-street area with the co-operation of Lord Portman, and that the estimate of £10,800 to be submitted by the Finance Committee in respect of the costs and expenses of acquiring the property under such scheme, be approved. The recommendations of the Committee were adopted by the Council on the 14th November, 1899. All the above schemes have since been confirmed. During the year 1899 the work of carrying out the various schemes which had been prepared in previous years was proceeded with. Schemes undertaken by the Council under Part I. of the Act or by the Metropolitan Board of Works under the Artizans' and Labourers' Dwellings Act, 1875. Boundary-street, Bethnal-green—The following buildings came into occupation during the year —Molesey, accommodating 124 persons, the estimated cost being £5,040 ; Clifton, accommodating 404 persons, estimated cost £17,251 ; Wargrave, accommodating 270, estimated cost £12,920 ; Cookham, accommodating 306 persons, estimated cost £14,316. The erection of these buildings completed the work of rehousing on the Boundary-street area, and the estate was formally declared open by H.R.H. the Prince of Wales in March, 1900. 63 The Boundary-street area was represented by Dr. Bate, the medical officer of health of Bethnalgreen, in July, 1890. The population of the area was 5,719, and the number of persons provided with house accommodation after completion of the scheme is 5,524. The cost of acquisition of the land and buildings was £311,111 up to the 31st March, 1900. The cost of roads, paving, &c., up to the 31st March, 1900, was £41,000; the estimated value of the land for the purposes of the erection of artisans' dwellings was £63,010, and the cost of the buildings was about £270,000, the final cost not having yet been ascertained. The large sum expended in the improvement of this area has so often been referred to as if this sum were merely the cost of the accommodation which has been provided under the scheme that I may allude, in this report, to one aspect of the work of carrying out improvement schemes under the Housing of the Working Classes Act which is often misapprehended, and for which the name of the Act under which the improvements are effected is perhaps responsible. The primary object of Part I. of the Act is not to provide artizans' dwellings but to secure the removal from the midst of the community of houses which are unfit for habitation, and the faults of which are in large degree due to bad arrangement. Where houses are thus situated, and are in a number of ownerships, rearrangement can only be carried out by vesting the property in one ownership, that of a public authority, who can then by the making of new streets, and by complete rearrangement of the area, ensure that the conditions which in future will exist are such as are needed for the health of the inhabitants. The chief value of the Act is therefore not so much the provision of house accommodation which is fit for habitation as the abolition of houses which are dangerous to health. Part I. is not therefore in itself so much a housing act as an Act for the removal of nuisances on a large scale. With the demand for house accommodation, which will always exist in the Metropolis whatever steps may be taken to provide additional house accommodation for the working classes, houses on the unhealthy area will continue to be occupied so long as they exist, and the procedure for obtaining the closing of unhealthy houses under Part II. of the Act provides no adequate remedy for conditions due in large degree to bad arrangement. The cost of clearing unhealthy areas is undoubtedly heavy, but it is the outcome of insufficient control over building operations in the past and it emphasizes the necessity of such control over buildings which are being erected at the present time as will obviate any necessity of repetition of the work of clearance in the future. It is only the existence of a sufficiently comprehensive building law, and the wise acceptance of conditions, which experience shows to be necessary in the houses of the poorer classes of the community, that will eventually obviate the necessity of improvement schemes under the Housing of the Working Classes Act. Churchway, St. Pancras—The work of acquiring the property of the Churchway area proceeded during the year and the Council having acquired the leasehold interest of the property on the eastern side of Churchway, proposed to agree with the freeholder in the erection of artizans' dwellings by the freeholder upon this part of the area. In May, however, the Housing Committee reported that the Court of Chancery had declined to give its sanction to the arrangement, and the freeholder was therefore prevented from co-operating with the Council in the manner proposed. In December the Council resolved to retain in their possession this part of the area, and made application to the Secretary of State for permission to erect artizans' dwellings. Trafalgar-road, Greenuich—In August, 1899, the Council authorised the Housing Committee to invite tenders for the erection of twenty-one cottages, the working drawings, specifications, and estimate of £10,192 of Mr. Rowland Plumbe, being accepted. It was provided that each cottage should contain two tenements of three rooms, one tenement on the ground floor and the other on the first floor. The upper tenement is approached from the rear of the cottage by a flight of steps, and all tenements have separate sculleries and water-closets. The area of the living rooms is 162 square feet and that of the bedrooms 97 and 120 square feet. Brook-street, Limeliouse—In June the Council accepted the tender of £4,420, for the erection of cottages on plot II. of this area. The erection of cottages for 108 persons was commenced. Cotton-street, Poplar—The erection was begun of buildings to accommodate 360 persons in 40 tenements of three rooms and 30 tenements of two rooms. The average size of the living rooms was to be 144 square feet, and of the bedrooms 96 square feet. The estimated cost was £12,320. Cable-street, Shadwell—The erection was begun of " Lowood " and " Chancery " buildings at an estimated cost of £13,511. The buildings provide for the accommodation of 276 persons in fivestorey balcony dwellings, having 58 tenements of two rooms and 22 tenements of one room. The average size of the living rooms and bedrooms exceeds the minimum of 144 square feet and 96 square feet respectively. Schemes undertaken by the Council under Part II. of the Act. Ann-street, Poplar—The erection was begun of balcony buildings to provide for 190 persons in 40 tenements, of which 15 will contain three rooms and 25 will contain two rooms. The average size of the living rooms is 144 square feet, and of the bedrooms 96 square feet. The estimated cost is £6,853. Green-street and Pocock-strset site, Southwark—This site was acquired to provide for the rehousing of persons displaced under the Falcon-court scheme. Plans for the erection of buildings to accommodate 200 persons were approved, the Council having met the requirement of the Local Government Board as to the thickness of partition walls, and the Board having withdrawn a condition previously imposed that the occupancy of the single rooms should be limited to a childless married couple, two girls, or two elderly persons of the same sex, and of two-room tenements to two adults being a married couple, and two children under ten years of age. Mill-lane, Deptford—The Housing Committee reported in November that in November, 1895, the Council had decided that block buildings and a common lodging-house should be erected on this area, but the Council, in deference to the views of the Greenwich Board, who desired cottage dwellings 64 to be erected, resolved to obtain permission to modify the scheme by reducing the number to be rehoused to 300 so as to allow of the erection of such dwellings. The Local Government Board held a local inquiry and subsequently decided to modify the scheme so that 272 persons should be housed in cottages on the area and 278 in the neighbourhood. The Committee could not find land for this purpose and the Committee therefore instructed the officers to report how the original number could be housed on the site. The architect had, therefore, prepared plans for a men's lodging-house, similar to those erected by Lord Rowton. The Committee had had an interview with Lord Rowton and Sir Richard Farrant, and as a result were satisfied that the site was suitable for the purpose. The Council therefore, on the Committee's recommendation, resolved not to act further upon their direction that application should be made to the Local Government Board for reduction of the number of persons to be housed on the site, from 550 to 300, but that plans for a men's lodging-houses on the lines of Rowton houses should be proceeded with, the charge to be 6d. per bed per night. Schemes undertaken by district authorities under Part II. of the Act to the cost of which the Council contributed. Moira-place and Plumber t-place, Shoreditch—A proposal of the Vestry of Shorediteh for a modification of the scheme by which the vestry would house an additional 72 persons was approved by the Council. Norfolk-square, Islington—The scheme for this area provided for the provision of accommodation for 102 persons on the site. In 1896 the Vestry of Islington being of opinion that there was vacant accommodation for this number of persons in the vicinity of the area proposed to devote the site to an open space, but the Local Government Board declined to permit this modification unless provision was made on another site for the number of persons displaced by the scheme. The vestry were unable to find a site for this purpose, ard proposed therefore to apply for a modification of the scheme which would enable them to provide for 72 persons on the area, and to devote the rest of it to open space. The Council were of opinion that in view of the dearth of accommodation the whole site should be devoted to housing, and the vestry therefore in 1899 made a proposal, with which the Council agreed, that the whole area should be devoted to the erection of a four-storey building which would house 192 persons. Chapel-grove and Eastnnr-place, St. Pancras—An inquiry was held by the Local Government Board as to the sufficiency of these schemes at which the officers of the Council gave evidence to the effect that the two schemes should be amalgamated, that a proposed road on the Chapel-grove site should not be made; that the whole of this site should be reserved for the erection of artizans' dwellings, and that the Eastnor-place area might be devoted to commercial purposes. This view was adopted by the Local Government Board. Sites acquired under Part III. of the Act. Millbank, Westminster—The erection of buildings on this area was continued. Hogarthbuildings, erected at an estimated cost of £14,018 for 306 persons, came into occupation during the year, and the erection of the following buildings was begun—Leigh ton, estimated cost £6,190 for 120 persons; Millais, estimated cost £6,190 for 120 persons; Turner, estimated cost £23,210 for 430 persons; Ruskin, estimated cost £23,210 for 430 persons; Romney, estimated cost £13,965 for 290 persons ; Rossetti, estimated cost £13,965 for 290 persons. Borough-road—The erection of buildings at an estimated cost of £24,395 for 400 persons was begun. The Housing Committee made enquiry for sites in and about London for the erection of artizans' dwellings, and reported in February that 30 sites had been found, but only on very few of those which are accessible from Central London would it be possible for the Council to build without a charge upon the rates. Upon these the Committee proposed to report later. An offer to the Council by Sir Samuel Montagu, Bart., M.P., of a gift of 25 acres in Edmonton for the erection of working-class dwellings could not at the time be accepted, as the Council were advised they had no power to proceed under Part III. of the Act outside London. The Council therefore resolved to seek amendment of the law to relieve them of this disability. The necessary power has since been obtained. Size of rooms. A deputation of the Housing Committee waited on the Home Secretary in July on the subject of the size of rooms in artizans' dwellings erected by the Council. The decision of the Secretary of State is shown in the following report which the Committee presented to the Council— In providing accommodation for persons displaced by carrying into effect schemes under the Housing of the Working Classes Act, 1890, or in connection with street improvements, it has always been the practice of the Council and the Home Office to reckon each room as being sufficient for two persons. Recently, however, the Secretary of State informed us that he felt bound to reconsider this basis in view of the fact that a return issued in 1898 showed that each room in the Council's dwellings accommodated on an average 1'6 persons. At the same time the question of the size of the rooms was raised, as in some cases plans had been submitted to the Secretary of State, showing tenements having living rooms of less than 134 square feet of floor space, though in these cases the size of the bedrooms had been correspondingly increased. As these two questions appeared to us to be of great importance, we attended at the Home Office by deputation, and explained our views fully to Sir Kenelm Digby. The Secretary of State has now replied officially to the deputation, promising to accept a minimum size of rooms of 144 square feet for living, and 96 square feet for bedrooms, with the further understanding that minute deviations from the minimum, especially in the case of three-room tenements, which may be rendered necessary by the plan of a building or the configuration of the site upon which it is placed will not be noticed. As regards the number of persons to be deemed to be accommodated, after hearing our arguments, and in view of the Council's resolution of 29th November, 1898, that housing accommodation should in all cases be provided for a number of persons equal to that of the working classes displaced, the Secretary of State has intimated that he is prepared to continue the basis of two persons per room heretofore in force. We report the facts for the information of the Council. 65 Proceedings in respect of houses represented as unfit for human habitation. The following tabular statement shows the procedure of district authorities as to houses represented as unfit for human habitation and concerning which the Council has received copies of representations from the 1st January to the 31st December, 1899— Local Authority. Total number of house4 concerning which the Council has received information that representations have been made from the 1/1/1)9 to the 31/12/99. Number of houses closed, demolished or improved by owners without Magisterial intervention. Number of houses for which closing orders were granted. Number of houses for which closing orders were refused. Number of houses outstanding or concerning which proceedings are in progress. Number of houses subsequently dealt with under the Public Health (London) Act, 1891. Closed. Demolished. Improved. Total. Subsequently demolished. Subsequently improved. No further action. Total. Battersea _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Bermondsey - - - - - - - - - - - - Bethnal-green 9 - - 9 9 - - - - - - - Camberwell - - - - _ - _ - - - - - Chelsea - - - - - - - - - - - - Clerkenwell 7 - - - - 7 _ - 7 _ - - Fulham 4 - - 4 4 - _ - - _ - - Greenwich - - - - - - _ - - _ - - Hackney - - - - - - - - - - - - Hammersmith - _ _ _ - _ - - - _ - - Hampstead 1 - - - - - - 1 1 - - - Holborn - _ _ _ _ - _ - - - - - Islington - - - - - - - - - - - - Kensington - - - - - - - - - - - - Lambeth 42 - - - _ _ _ - - _ 42 - Lee - - - - - - - - - _ - - Lewisham - - - - _ _ - - _ _ - Limehouse - - - - - - _ - - - - - Mile-end Old-town 12 4 - - 4 - - - - _ 8 - Newington 9 - 9 - 9 - - - - - - - Paddington - - - - - _ - - - - - - Plumstead 5 - 5 - 5 _ - - - _ _ - Poplar - - - - - - - - - - - - Rotherhithe 2 - _ 2 2 - - - - _ _ - St. George, Hanover-sq. - - - - - - - - - - - - St. George-in-the-East 6 - - 3 3 2 1 _ 3 - - _ St. George, Southwark - - - - - - - - - - - - St. Giles 2 - - - - _ 1 1 2 _ - _ St. James, Westminster - - - - - - - - - _ _ - St. Luke 1 - - - - - - 1 1 - - - St. Martin-in-the-Fields - - - - - _ - - - _ _ St. Marylebone 3 - - 1 1 - 2 - 2 - - - St. Olave, Southwark 2 - - - - - - - _ _ - 2 St. Pancras - - - - - _ _ - - - - _ St. Saviour, Southwark - - - - - - - - - _ _ _ Shoreditch - - - - - _ - - - _ _ - Strand - - - - - - - - - _ _ _ Wandsworth 3 - 3 - 3 - - - - _ - _ Westminster 5 - - - - 5 - - 5 _ - - Whitechapel - - - - - - - - - - - - Woolwich _ - - - - - - _ - - - - Total 113 4 17 19 40 14 4 3 21 _ 50 2 From the above tabular statement it will be seen that during the past year only 16 of the local authorities have taken any action under Part II. of the Housing of the Working Classes Act, 1890. It does not necessarily follow that in the other districts proceedings have not been instituted for closing houses, the explanation being that many of the local authorities have found it more convenient to proceed under the Public Health (London) Act, 1891. In five cases—those of Hammersmith, St. George, Hanover-square, St. James, St. Martin-in-the-fields, and St. Saviour, Southwark—no action has been taken under Part II. of the Housing of the Working Classes Act since this Act came into force. The medical officer of health of St. Olave represented as " obstructive buildings " the two middle blocks of Barnham-buildings. He reported that " the average death rate of the unhealthy tenements (all the ground and first floor rooms, except those facing the front, Barnham-street, and the rear of the buildings) was at least 49-6 per 1,000 and of the remainder at least 29* 1 per ],000, and for each of the five years the death rate in the unhealthy tenements was much higher than that of the remainder." A committee of the district board inspected the buildings, and in view of the great demand for house accommodation in the district, felt they were not justified in making an order for the demolition of the obstructive buildings, inasmuch as it would involve the loss of 48 " undoubtedly inhabitable tenements." The following references to the subject of the housing of the working classes appeared in the reports of medical officers of health— Kensington—Dr. Dudfield discusses the Notting-dale area and reiterates his opinion that the houses should be acquired by a public authority which should let the rooms at reasonable rents, subject to regulations to ensure the good conduct of the lodgers, and that this would entail no loss to the ratepayers. The Council again had this subject under consideration, a memorial having been [9] 66 received asking the Council to acquire the houses under Part III. of the Housing of the Working Class Act. The Housing of the Working Classes Committee reported that the memorial did not advance any new facts or arguments which caused the Committee to alter their opinion expressed in 1897, that the application of Part III. of the Act was not the proper remedy. Under the amending Act of this year the Borough Council can proceed to acquire the property if they so desire. In connection with this subject Dr. Dudfield refers to the insufficiency of the staff of sanitary inspectors, and to the need of more frequent inspection of the houses in this area. St. Pancras—Dr. Sykes reports that the vestry resolved that steps be taken to ascertain whether certain houses in Chapel-street could be acquired by agreement with a view to giving effect to the decision of the Local Government Board as to the Eastnor-place and Chapel-grove schemes. St. Oiles—Dr. Lovett reports that since the Housing of the Working Classes Act was passed, 154 premises in this district have been dealt with under the Act. St. James, Westminster—Dr. Edmunds again discusses the suitability of the site of the brewery and workhouse in the north-eastern part of the district for the erection of artizans' dwellings and to the need for the opening up of this neighbourhood by new streets. He states that rebuilding continues to go on upon the old streets, rendering any future improvement more costly. Strand—Dr. Allan states that 111 dwelling houses in this district will be removed for the purposes of the Holborn to Strand street and that in these are accommodated 534 families, comprising 1,726 persons occupying 833 rooms. Of these 754 occupy tenements of one room, 768 tenements of two rooms, 74 tenements of three rooms, and 130 persons living in 23 houses occupy more than three rooms. During the last six years 390 deaths have occurred among the residents, giving a mean death rate of 32 2 per 1,000; 21-5 per cent, of these deaths were due to tubercular disease and 15 per cent, to zymotic disease. In the respective streets the death rate varied from 21 to 41 per 1,000. In the above calculations the receiving ward in Bear-yard and four common lodging-houses have been excluded. In connection with the Clare-market scheme " at the end of 1899, 99 houses were entirely closed and many others were only partially inhabited; probably about 1,000 persons have been displaced during the year. The death rate of the area to the middle of 1899 is 36 per 1,000, which is also the average of the preceding eight years. Of the 84 deaths, 18 were due to consumption." Holborn—Dr. Bond includes in his report a detailed account of the Union-buildings area which the Council decided to improve under the Housing of the Working Classes Act. St. Luke—Dr. Yarrow states that Lines-buildings, Eichard's-place, Old-street, which were closed under Part II. of the Housing of the Working Classes Act, had only been erected about ten years. They consist of two separate blocks situated at the end of a cul-de-sac, and about six feet apart, and connected on the first floor by a bridge. They have no back windows or means of through ventilation, and by reason of the height and close proximity of the two buildings the lower rooms are quite dark. The account given of these buildings is useful in showing what could be erected under the old building law. Shoreditch—Dr. Bryett gives account of 27 houses closed during the year; the majority were improved and subsequently re-occupied. Whitechapel—The report of Dr. Loane contains a statement prepared at the request of the Parliamentary Committee of the London County Council showing the particulars of persons displaced by works of railway and other undertakings during the past twenty years, and particulars of new property erected and its estimated population. Dr. Loane summarizes this part of his report by saying " On the whole it is clear that more accommodation now exists for the working classes in the Whitechapel district than was the case before the changes took place." Bethnal-green—In discussing the buildings which have been erected upon the Boundary-street estate, Dr. Bate takes exception to some of the tenements on the grounds that they are not " self-contained," and he expresses the opinion that "it is not decent that one closet should be used in common by several families; and the same observation applies to washing conveniences. The law insists that factories and workshops shall be provided with separate sanitary conveniences for both sexes, but unfortunately does not extend this requirement to the dwellings. Is is not unreasonable to demand that the workman's home shall be at least as private as his place of business." Mile-end Old-town—Dr. Rygate states, that inasmuch as the application of the provisions of the Public Health Act is preventing houses from becoming uninhabitable, fewer applications are each year made for the closing of houses under the Housing of the Working Classes Act, and he had therefore to report on only twelve houses during the year. Property has become more valuable, the rents have been enormously increased, houses being repaired and renovated. St. George-the-Martyr—Dr. Waldo reports that from 1892 to 1898, closing orders under Part II. of the Housing of the Working Classes Act, have been obtained for 322 dwellings occupied by 1,517 persons. Lambeth—Dr. Priestley expresses the opinion that the employment of the provisions of Part I. of the Housing of the Working Classes Act, is unnecessary in the district. The number of houses dealt with under Part II. during the year was 42. Wandsworth—A block of houses in Brewhouse-lane, Putney, was represented under Part II. of the Housing of the Working Classes Act by Dr. Orr. Greenwich—Dr. Hartt writes that, during the past year a great number of cases of overcrowding came to his knowledge, principally from want of house accommodation. The opening of the Blackwall-tunnel has led to an influx of persons of the artizan and labouring classes without a corresponding increase in the number of houses. He states there are open spaces which might be built upon. Small Dwellings Acquisition Act, 1899. This Act provides that a local authority for any area may advance money to a resident in any house within the area for the purpose of enabling him to acquire the ownership of that house. The 67 local authority must before making the advance satisfy themselves inter c.lia that the applicant is resident or intends to reside in the house. Ownership is defined as " such interest or combination of interests in a house as, together with the interest of the purchaser of the ownership, will constitute either a fee simple in possession or a leasehold inlerest in possession of at least 60 years unexpired at the date of the purchase." Any advance shall not exceed (a) four-fifths of that which, in the opinion of the local authority, is the market value of the ownership, or (b) two hundred and forty pounds, or in the case of a fee simple or leasehold of not less than 99 years unexpired at the date of the purchase, three hundred pounds, and an advance shall not be made for the acquisition of the ownership where, in the opinion of the local authority, the market value of the house exceeds four hundred pounds. The interest is not to exceed ten shillings above the rate at which the local authority can at the time borrow from the Public Works Loan Commission. The repayment is to be made within a time agreed upon, not to exceed thirty years. The Vestry of Westminster were advised by Mr. R. Cunningham Glen that the word " house " in the Act can be taken to include a " tenement" or " flat," or a dwelling approached by a staircase used in common by other tenants of the building comprising such tenement, flat, or dwelling. The Regulation of Houses Let in Lodgings. No further inquiry was made by the Council during the year as to the extent to which sanitary authorities were giving effect to the very necessary provisions of section 94 of the Public Health (London) Act requiring them to register and regulate houses let in lodgings. The position of the Vestry of Bethnal-green in declining to enforce the by-laws to which I referred in my last annual report was again under the consideration of the Public Health Committee who, in December, 1899, presented to the Council the following report— By section 94 of the Public Health (London) Act, 1891, every sanitary authority is required to make and enforce such by-laws as are requisite for the following matters; that is to say— " (a) For fixing the number of persons who may occupy a house or part of a house which is " let in lodgings or occupied by members of more than one family, and for the separation of the " sexes in a house so let or occupied; " (b) For the registration of houses so let or occupied; " (c) For the inspection of such houses ; " (d) For enforcing drainage for such houses, and for promoting cleanliness and ventilation in " such houses; " (e) For the cleansing and lime-washing at stated times of the premises ; " (/) For the taking of precautions in case of any infectious disease." On 30th November, 1897, we reported to the Council that though by-laws under the above section or regulations under the Sanitary Act of 1866 with respect to houses let in lodgings had been made in every London district, in only a limited number of districts was any considerable effort made to enforce them. We submitted a report by the medical officer showing the result of a detailed inquiry made by Dr. Hamer in the various districts, and pointing out the great advantages which were found to result when the work of regulating such houses was seriously undertaken and when a sufficient staff was provided for the purpose. In view of the fact that the enforcement of the by-laws on this subject was so much neglected in many districts, the Council on 14th December, 1897, resolved to make a complaint to the Local Government Board as provided for in section 101 of the Public Health (London) Act, 1891. The sanitary authority with regard to which the Council decided to take this course in the first instance was the Vestry of Bethnal-green, which did not seem to have attempted to take any action with respect to houses let in lodgings. A letter was accordingly addressed to the Local Government Board, making formal complaint under section 101 of the Act that the Vestry of Bethnal-green had made default in executing the provisions of section 94, and the Board subsequently asked for the Council's observations on a letter from the vestry on the subject. In this letter the vestry pointed out that one of their by-laws (No. 2) provided that the by-laws should not apply to a lodging-house if and so long as the vestry deemed it unnecessary to register such lodging-house. The vestry proceeded to state that they had not settled any policy of not registering houses, but that there was divergency of opinion between the sanitary committee and the medical officer as to the '• expediency of placing a mass of houses on the register.' They, however, " relied on the obligation of their medical officer and sanitary inspectors to report as to houses occupied by members of more than one family in such manner that the Committee might, when requisite, place houses on the register" ; at the same time they did not see much practical benefit would result from registration. The Council in reply pointed out to the Local Government Board that the question at issue appeared to be whether the vestry had exercised a reasonable and proper discretion in declining to register any houses, and suggested that the vestry should bo asked to furnish the Board with particulars of the specific houses which they had considered and decided not to register. The Council added that the fact that no houses at all had been registered, and that the section which it was the duty of the vestry to enforce was, seven years after the commencement of the Act, entirely inoperative in Bethnal-green, seemed a strong indication of a default within the meaning of section 101. The Local Government Board subsequently gave their decision to the effect that, having regard to the by-law in question, the vestry did not appear to them to have been guilty of default within the terms of section 101. It thus appears that the vestry, by making and obtaining confirmation of a by-law giving them discretion as to the houses to be registered, have been enabled to render section 94 of the Act a dead letter in their district, and, in view of the great importance of the question, we have been considering whether it is open to the Council to take any further action. We have obtained an opinion of an eminent Queen's counsel, and he advises that it may fairly be contended that the by-law is void for uncertainty. He, however, expresses the opinion that the only way in which the Council could take steps to get it set aside or to test its validity would be by applying to the Local Government Board to act under section 101 for default by the vestry " in executing any provisions which it is their duty to execute of this Act," which words he considers wide enough to cover a case of default in making by-laws. He is also of opinion that if by-law No. 2 were declared invalid, the vestry could be compelled, under_ section 101, to make new by-laws. In these circumstances and in view of the fact that some other sanitary authorities in London have made by-laws containing a similar clause to by-law No. 2 made by the Bethnal-green Vestry, we think the Council should not allow the matter to remain in its present position, 63 but should apply to the Local Government Board to put in force the provisions of section 101 in order to compel the vestry to make valid by-laws, or to appoint the Council to perform such duty. We accordingly recommend— That the Council do make complaint to the Local Government Board under section 101 of the Public Health (London) Act, 1891, with a view to the Board putting in force the provisions of that section in order to compel the Vestry of Bethnal-green to make valid by-laws as to houses let in lodgings, or to appoint the Council to perform such duty. The recommendation of the Committee was adopted. The subject of the regulation of houses let in lodgings is referred to in the annual reports of the medical officers of health of the following districts— Paddington—Progress was made in the registration of houses let in lodgings, an assistant inspector having been appointed for this purpose in February, 1899. A large number of houses were visited, and 267 notices to furnish information were issued. As many as 1,886 rooms were measured up, and their cubic contents calculated. During the latter nine months of the year 210 houses were registered, the total number of houses on the register at the end of the year being 406. Dr. Reginald Dudfield states that, " practically all the houses in Clarendon, Cirencester, Woodchester and Desborough streets have been measured up and a very large amount of work done there to bring the houses up to the comparatively low standard of the by-laws. The closet accommodation has been very nearly doubled, and a useful amount of white-washing and cleansing carried out." The question of the rent limits prescribed by the by-laws was under consideration. Under the existing by-laws, tenements of which the rental is 5s. per room unfurnished, and 7s. 6d. per room furnished or upwards, are exempted from the by-laws. The vestry proposed that in the case of the occupancy of a single room, such room should be exempted if let unfurnished at 4s. 6d. and upwards, and if let furnished at 6s. and upwards, and tenements of two or more rooms should be exempted if let unfurnished at 7s. 6d. and upwards, or furnished at 10s. and upwards. The decision of the Local Government Board was awaited. Dr. Dudfield writes that "The whole work done with reference to tenement houses has had, so far as a general survey of the streets on the register is concerned, an excellent effect." Kensington—In this district new by-laws are awaiting confirmation by the Local Government Board. Among these proposed by-laws is one requiring the keeper of a house let in furnished lodgings to keep the bedding and other articles free from noxious insects. Forty-eight houses were registered during 1899, and the total number of houses on the register was 1,681. Dr. T. Orme Dudfield, in discussing the results obtained by the application of these measures for maintaining tenement houses in a wholesome condition, writes— Whilst facilitating the work of the Public Health department, registration of houses let in lodgings has given rise to none of the evils feared by the owners and occupiers of houses proposed to be registered; the by-laws, moreover, have worked smoothly and practically without objection by any of the parties affected by them. The extension of the operation of by-laws to all tenemented houses, and other houses occupied in lodgings by the poorer classeB, would, with an adequate inspecting staS and systematic inspection at frequent intervals, be an unmixed benefit from the public health point of view, by enabling the sanitary authority to maintain the conditions necessary to secure healthy homes for the people who, in regard to such matters, have little power to help themselves. Hammersmith—The medical officer of health states that the Public Health Committee gave directions for 72 houses let in lodgings to be registered, but that " owing to pressure of other work in the department, it was found not to be possible to inspect the premises that were registered. If this work is to be carried out, and there can be no doubt it ought to be, it is absolutely necessary to appoint another inspector." The insufficiency of the staff of sanitary inspectors was stated in a special report which Dr. Collier presented to the vestry during the year, a copy of which was duly forwarded to the London County Council. The Council addressed a letter to the vestry asking whether an additional inspector had been appointed by the vestry in accordance with his recommendation. The letter of the Council was referred to the Public Health Committee of the vestry, who presented to the vestry a report on the subject. This report, which was adopted by the vestry, discusses the duties of the inspectors, and makes certain recommendation and concludes with this statement " that in view of the London municipalities coming into operation in November next, and the overhauling of the staff consequent thereupon, we do not consider it advisable at the present time to appoint an additional inspector." Fulham—There were 329 houses on the register in 1899 with, the medical officer of health says, beneficial results. " The definition, however, of the term ' landlord' in the by-laws has given rise to difficulties, as a weekly tenant who sublets some of his rooms is the ' landlord' within the meaning of these, and not the ' owner,' who consequently has in some cases repudiated all responsibility for the observance of the by-laws. It is moreover advisable that the rent limit, viz., 6s. for unfurnished rooms, should be raised." St. George, Hanover-square—The number of houses registered during the year was 22, making 153 in all on the register. These were inspected, and the regulations as to cleansing complied with. Westminster—All the houses on the register have been inspected. The owner of three houses was fined £9 for failing to comply with notices relating to cleansing. Proceedings were also instituted in one other case. St. James, Westminster—The medical officer of health states that " Tenement houses about which any difficulty occurs as to their sanitary condition are registered so as to be kept under efficient control." Marylebone—A table in the annual report of the medical officer of health shows that in this district there were 1,077 inspections of registered houses. Hampstead—A table in the annual report of the medical officer of health shows that 840 registered houses were regularly inspected. St. Pancras—The number of registered houses at the end of the jear was 293. 69 Islington—The number of registered houses is 493, of which 45 were added during the year. The work of inspecting these houses systematically has been found too much for one inspector, and another inspector has been appointed. The medical officer of health refers to the difficulty in finding lodgings with which poor people with large families meet. Stoke Newington—The medical officer of health states that in this district, especially in the southern division, there is a considerable number of houses let in lodgings under circumstances and conditions which render it desirable, in the interest of personal and public health, that they should be registered and inspected« at frequent intervals. One hundred houses in this district are registered. The limit of rental which formerly excluded houses from the operation of the by-laws was 2s. 6d. per week for unfurnished, and 4s. per week for furnished accommodation. This low limit, Dr. Kenwood writes, made the by-laws a dead letter. Application was therefore made to the Local Government Board for confirmation of an amended by-law which raised these limits to 4s. and 6s. per week respectively. Hackney—The number of houses registered during the year was 108. The report of the medical officer of health contains a table showing the work executed under the supervision of the sanitary inspectors in registered houses in the district. As many as 662 defects were remedied. St. Giles—There are 617 registered houses in this district. St. Martin-in-the-Fields—Houses let in lodgings have been regularly inspected. Strand—At the end of 1899 there were 112 premises on the register, of which 8 were closed. Those occupied contained 967 rooms and accommodated 2,015 persons. The owner of one house was summoned and fined. Inspection in the early morning was made on several occasions by the inspectors and once by the medical officer of health. Holborn—There are 335 registered houses in the district, 13 being registered during 1899. Clerkenwell—The medical officer of health states that " the new by-law as to houses let in lodgings which changed the minimum permissible cubic space from 350 cubic feet per head to 400 cubic feet for rooms occupied by day and night, was enforced during the year. At the beginning of the year 1900 there were 169 houses on the register. During 1899 the number of houses placed for the first time on the register was 40. The summonses which were issued to owners of registered houses for not complying with the by-laws numbered 17." Dr. Kenwood is of opinion that this work should be proceeded with " as it is one of the most satisfactory and reliable ways of maintaining a good standard of sanitation in such houses." With respect to overcrowding he writes: " Reform in a matter like overcrowding is, and must be, slow and delicate work; the lack of accommodation for the displaced is of course the chief difficulty." St. Luke—The by-laws, the medical officer of health states, have been actively enforced during the year. The by-laws were confirmed in 1898, and in 1899 125 houses were added to the 18 previously on the register. Dr. Yarrow writes: " Experience shows that although registration considerably increases the work of the sanitary inspectors, it conduces to the better management and condition of tenement houses, and must tend to improve the comfort and health of the occupiers." City—The medical officer of health reports that there are 405 houses on the register. These contain 1,322 tenements, and are occupied by 3,156 lodgers, giving an average of 2-4 persons per tenement The number of sanitary notices served in respect of these houses was 714. Shoreditch—Eleven houses were registered during the year, making 125 houses in all on the register. Bethnal-green—The medical officer of health discusses the position of Bethnal-green in relation to the regulation of houses let in lodgings, and he states that " the large majority of the Board still holds the opinion that the enforcement of the regulations in their entirety would be impossible in Bethnal-green under present conditions. In conformity with this opinion the Sanitary Committee has not placed any houses upon the register during the past year, so that at the date of this report our by-laws are inoperative." Referring to the opinion of the vestry, he writes, " I respect this opinion, as I know it to be an honest one, but I cannot agrea with it, as 1 contend that a practical attempt should have been made to work the regulations with a view to ascertain what they are worth." He adds— "Unfortunately the vestry Eeem to have concentrated their attention on those clauses of the tenement house regulations which deal with overcrowding and indecent occupation, to the exclusion of the others. I have all along held that without increased housing accommodation it is impossible to enforce these particular clauses. I have formed this opinion, not merely on the ground of the known inability of the poorer inhabitants to pay rents for the additional rooms they require as their families increase, but in the belief that, even if no rent -were demanded, the whole of the existing houses in Bethnal-green could not accommodate the present population of the parish on the basis of the cubic space prescribed by the by-laws." Dr. Bate concludes by stating that the by-laws contain many other useful clauses, and that he is of opinion that if the vestry is not further pressed in the matter, a few houses will be gradually placed on the register, and that it will then be possible to show such results as will lead to many other houses being treated in a similar manner. It is sincerely to be hoped that the sanitary authority of Bethnal-green will not continue to deprive themselves of the opportunity of improving the sanitary condition of tenement houses in the district which is afforded by the regulation of houses let in lodgings. The statement of their medical officer as to the overcrowding of the district, which I have given above, should alone lead them to feel the necessity of adopting this course. While Bethnal-green stands aloof, it will be observed that London sanitary authorities generally are beginning to recognise the usefulness of thus controlling the houses occupied by the poorest class of the community. The influx of people to the metropolis will probably continue to make insufficient any house accommodation which is provided, and will produce the worst results in the district or districts neglecting to exercise the best powers they possess for counteracting this pressure. If the medical officer of health of Bethnal-green is now able to write of the overcrowding of the district in the manner in which he has done, his authority 70 may well consider what will be the future condition of the district when other London sanitary authorities have, by the enforcement of regulations, secured control over the condition of tenement property in their areas, while Bethnal-green alone fails to resist the pressure from without. Whitechapel—The medical officer of health states that the alteration of the by-laws by which tenants will be registered if the rent, when unfurnished, does not exceed 7s. 6d. per week, and when furnished does not exceed 15s. per week, will necessitate many additions to the register, and probably require the services of an additional inspector. Dr. Loane writes " During the year under consideration I have become aware, in the hundreds of houses I have myself inspected, of instances where part of a two or three-roomed tenement has been sub-let to others by the tenant. Only persistent regular inspection can cope with such a practice. St. George-in-the-East—There are now 83 houses registered in this district, this number including " so far as is known all the tenement houses in the district which can be registered by reason of the rents." The medical officer of health says, " It is satisfactory to be able to report a marked improvement in their general sanitary condition in comparison with what obtained before registration." Mile-end Old-town—The medical officer of health states that the houses under supervision are occupied by several families, and the class of people who inhabit them make it necessary for the houses to be frequently inspected. Considerable trouble has been experienced during the year with the landlords, some of whom have raised their rents, thus getting a class of tenant who sub-let the houses ; other landlords are foreigners who do not understand the obligation they are under as to periodical cleansing. Poplar—The Sanitary Committee again considered the report of the medical officer of health and the letters of the London County Council with reference to the enforcement of the by-laws. It was decided to require the landlords of houses in certain streets to supply the necessary information for registration. St. George-the-Martyr—There were 7,920 inspections of registered houses. Newington—The number of houses on the register at the end of 1899 was 2. An additional 25 had been added to the list up to the time of the medical officer of health writing his report (July, 1900). St. Olave—The number of houses registered is 19. Four summonses were taken out; one was withdrawn, and for the other three a fine of £6 wa3 inflicted. Bermondsey— The number of houses on the register is 293. Rotherhithe—Two additional houses were registered during the year. Lambeth—The number of houses registered during the year was 34, making a total of 385 houses containing 2,213 rooms on the register. Battersea—The report of the medical officer of health shows that 49 houses were registered. Wandsworth (Clapham)—The medical officer of health states that the houses on the register were regularly inspected, and were, on the whole, found to be in a better condition than in former years. He writes—" The April cleansing can be insisted on, and overcrowding more easily abated, but there I think the advantages end. I think more good is accomplished by systematic house-tohouse inspection, street by street, than by registering a larger number of houses let in lodgings." It may be pointed out that the greater facility which regulations give for ensuring conditions of cleanliness and absence of overcrowding, is an important reason for registering houses in which dirt and overcrowding are especially likely to occur, and that registration is not an alternative to systematic inspection, but is one of the means by which it is secured. (Putney and Roehampton)—Certain houses in Floss-street have been put on the register, but sufficient time had not elapsed to enable an opinion to be formed as to the result. (Wandsivorth)—The medical officer of health writes—"There are now 22 houses on the register, an increase of two compared with last year. In one case proceedings had to be taken to have the statutory cleansing done, and in another proceedings were taken as the owner refused to sign the necessary papers. In the other houses the cleansing was done at the appointed time. I am able to report that these by-laws are of great service in these properties which have been put on the register." Camberwell—Fifty-one houses let in lodgings were inspected. The sanitary committee of the vestry have been desirous of extending the application of the by-laws which their medical officer of health regards as a necessity. Dr. Stevens' report contains the following paragraph— In consequence of representations made to the sewers and sanitary committee by myself regarding the necessity for more extended registration of houses let in lodgings, it was decided by that body to appoint a sub-committee to inspect these premises after I had recommended them for registration, and before any resolution to that effect was submitted by the committee. The vestry, however, passed " the previous question." The by-laws, therefore, relating to houses let in lodgings are practically only in force in the district round Hollington-street, although it is my opinion that other parts of the parish are equally suitable for registration in this way, and it was my intention that the houses on which the discussion arose should be the starting point of a much wider registration than has heretofore existed. Greenwich (Deptford)—Eighteen houses were added in 1899 to those on the register. The medical officer of health reports these houses " have received constant supervision, thereby avoiding overcrowding and ensuring cleanliness and proper ventilation." Woolwich—The medical officer of health states that there are 66 houses registered, and inspections have been systematically made to ensure compliance with the regulations. Plumslead—At the beginning of the year there were 20 houses on the register. The medical officer of health recommended the registration of an additional 16, 13 of which were registered by order of the Sanitary Committee. " Nearly all were on receipt of the notice reduced to occupation by one family, and others have been taken off the register for the same reason. There remained on the register at the close of the year 18 houses." Dr. Sidney Davies is of opinion that the by-laws should be drafted so as to apply to all houses let in lodgings below a certain rental, whether registered or not, and he adds that there are probably 500 houses in Plumstead which ought to be subject to the by-laws. 71 Common Lodging-houses. The year 1899 was the sixth year during which common lodging-houses in the county of London have been subject to regulation by the Council. The number of houses on the register at the end of the year was 544, providing accommodation for 28,448 persons. Fourteen of these houses were registered for the first time in 1899. In the supervision of these houses the Council's inspectors made '28,615 inspections, of which number 28,229 visits were made to registered and 386 visits were made to unregistered houses. On the 31st January, 1899, the Council authorised the appointment of an inspector to make night inspections of common lodging-houses. From the 16th May, the date when the night inspector commenced his duties, to the end of the year, 1,162 night inspections were made. This systematic night inspection has resulted in the institution of legal proceedings against several keepers for overcrowding. Preliminary notices have been served in 238 cases. Proceedings before the magistrate were instituted in 25 cases resulting in 22 convictions, fines being inflicted amounting in the aggregate to £155 lis. and £27 18s. costs. In one case the summons was withdrawn, and in the two remaining cases costs only were allowed, the summonses being dismissed. The number of cases of notifiable infectious disease reported in these houses during the year was as follows— Diphtheria 10 ; enteric fever 11; erysipelas 26; scarlet fever 7, or 54 in all. The number of deaths from various causes reported in these houses during the year was 96. The following table shows the number of common lodging-houses, the authorised number of lodgers in such houses at the end of 1899, and the number of houses registered for the first time in each sanitary district during the year— Common lodging-houses. Sanitary district. Number of common lodging-houses. Authorised number of lodgers. Number of houses registered in 1899. Battersea 6 234 - Bermondsey 3 208 - Bethnal-green 12 367 - Camberwell 10 622 - Chelsea 17 841 - Clerkenwell 6 347 1 Fulham 1 51 - Greenwich 16 753 1 Hackney 11 501 - Hammersmith 9 550 1 Hampstead. 1 35 - Holborn 12 683 1 Islington 46 1,325 1 Kensington 32 942 1 Lambeth 10 703 1 Lewisham 9 126 - Limehouse 21 864 - Marylebone 20 914 - Mile-end 3 122 - Newington 12 1,423 1 Paddington 3 71 - Poplar 13 948 2 Rotherhithe 3 116 - St. George-in-the-East 17 515 - St. George-the-Martyr, Southwark 30 1,539 - St. Giles 30 1,708 1 St. James 1 88 - St. Luke 4 240 - St. Martin-in-the-Fields 4 170 - St. Olave 1 533 - St. Pancras 19 893 2 St. Saviour, Southwark 17 882 - Shoreditch 14 760 - Stoke Newington 1 37 - Strand 11 620 - Wandsworth 12 269½* - Westminster 16 1,282 - Whitechapel 55 5,298 1 Woolwich 36 867½* - Total 544 28,448 14 * i = 1 child under 10 years of age. In December, 1898, the attention of the Council's officers was called to the premises 9 and 10, Stanhope-street, Strand, know as " The Harbour," and used as a shelter by the Salvation Army. 72 After evidence had been obtained as to the use of the premises, the Public Health Committee decided to instruct the solicitor to take the case before a magistrate for a decision as to whether the shelter could be regarded as a common lodging-house, and as such approved and registered. This was done in July, 1899. About the same time, summonses were issued in respect to the " Rowton-house," in Bond-street, Vauxhall, and of the "Victoria-home," 177, Whitechapel-road. In each case, however, the summons was dismissed, that of "The Harbour" and the " Victoria Home" on the ground that these were charitable institutions and that the facts were not distinguishable from those in the ca: o of Booth v. Ferrett, in which it was held that a common lodging-house must be kept for purposes of gain. In the case of Rowton House the magistrate found that the house was not, as a fact, a common lodging-house. The Public Health Committee then instructed the solicitor to appeal against the decision in the case of the " Victoria-house" and " The Harbour," and cases were stated by the magistrates. The appeal in the case of Logsdon v. Booth respecting " The Harbour," Stanhope-street, was heard on the 19th November, 1899, and judgment was given in favour of the Council by the Lord Chief Justice on the 21st December, 1899. In the case of Logsdon v. Trotter, respecting the "Victoria Home," 177, Whitechapel-road, judgment on appeal before Mr. Justice Channell and Mr. Justice Bucknill was given in favour of the Council on the 2nd February, 1900. The text of the judgment in each of these cases was as follows— The Salvation Army premises at " The Harbour," Stanhope-street, Strand. Logsdon v. Booth. The Lord Chief Justice—This was a case heard before my learned brethren Mr. Justice Bigham Mr. Justice Darling and myself and I have now to deliver the Judgment of the Court. This is an appeal from the decision of the Chief Metropolitan Magistrate on the hearing of an information laid by the Appellant against the Respondent charging the latter with keening contrary to the Common Lodging Houses Act of 1853 a common lodging-house known as " The Harbour " Stanhopestreet St. Clement Danes without the name of the Respondent being entered as the keeper thereof in the register kept under the Common Lodging Houses Act 1851. The learned Magistrate dismissed the charge on the authority of a decision of a Divisional Court in the case of Booth Appellant v. Ferrett Respondent 25 Queen's Bench Division page 87 heard in 1890 in which the present Respondent was the Appellant. The questions which arise for our determination are as follows—(1) Is the case of Booth v. Ferrett in principle distinguishable from this case ? (2) If not was that case rightly decided? and (3) If not rightly decided ought we now to review it P The material facts are to be found in paragraphs 12 3 4 5 and 7 of the case and to these I will briefly refer. Paragraph 1 states that "The Harbour" the house in question is kept by William Booth the Respondent as one of the shelters established by the Salvation Army as part of their social work in connection with what is called the " Darkest England Scheme." It ia conducted upon the basis of orders and regulations to which I will in a moment refer. Various prices were charged—low prices for the night's lodging varying from a very low figure. The case states that the persons who were admitted were charged either 4d. a night or 2s. a week for a bed and the use in rommin with other occupants of certain rooms. The officials in charge of the shelter had a certain discretion to admit persons for a less payment or with no payment and such persons when admitted would in like manner have the use of a bed and the use of the rooms. The case then proceeds to show that on the 16th May there were 157 beds or bunks that on the ground floor there was an open dormitory not divided into cubicles that on the five upper floors were open dormitories not divided into cubicles containing in all 137 beds and one bunk for two occupants. The bunks were placed one above another in the same manner as berths are placed in the cabin of a ship. On the ground floor there was a sitting or meeting room and a kitchen and any occupant when admitted was entitled to cook food at the fire and to have the use of it in common with the other persons admitted. Paragraph 4 states that only men were admitted as the occupants and men who were drunk or disorderly were not admitted or if admitted they were turned out. Paragraph 5 states that the occupants were of the same class of men as the men who generally sleep in registered common lodging-houses save that some of the occupants received at "The Harbour" were so dirty that they would not be usually received in a common lodging-house. Paragraph 7 states that the house was kept for charitable or religious objects the keeping of the house being part of the social work of the Salvation Army and the receipts of the shelter were carried to the funds of the Darkest England Scheme Trust by the officials of the Army. Then there is a paragraph to which I need not refer at length paragraph 8 as to whether or not a profit was or might be made in fact by the keeping of some of these shelters or harbours. I do not think I need read paragraph 9 but it is to be taken further that although according to the principles laid down by the orders and regulations the place was to be conducted on a business basis it was not for the object of personal gain to the Respondent and those acting for him and under his instructions. It is necessary to refer to pages 179 180 187 and 188 of the regulations. At page 179 it is stated the charges made are within the reach of the poorest. (I am not reading each word and every word of each of these clauses I am referring to the points to which I desire to call attention.) The shelters afford this accommodation not as a work of charity only but on a business basis so that the inmates are not demoralised by charity knowing that they pay for what they have and have only what they pay for. In the shelters the very outcasts of society are brought for a season at least into conditions of health and cleanliness. Next there are certain religious exercises and meetings held at which attendance is not compulsory. Then at page 180 it is provided that the shelters are not to be allowed to become the permanent homes of men who are able to pay more for'the accommodation than the shelter provided. Again the shelter must not be allowed to assist idle men in their efforts to live a lazy life. Next the shelter must not be permitted to become in any way a channel or means for the dissemination of disease. Then there are certain provisions as to bringing influence to bear on the inmates and as to endeavouring to find employment for them and a number cf provisions very carefully framed apparently if rigorously carried out directed to the preservation and promotion of health. The harbour so described and so conducted in no material particular differs from the house the subject of the enquiry in Booth v. Ferrett. We therefore think that the present case is not in principle different from that case. The next inquiry is was that case rightly decided? The learned judges in Booth v. Ferrett came to the conclusion (but with hesitation) that a similar house and similarly conducted to the present was not a common lodging-house on two grounds. First that it was not carried on as a business for the sake of profit but as a humane or charitable enterprise and second that it was not open to all comers as it was stated a common lodging-house was. 73 Before examining these grounds of decision more closely it will be well to examine the scheme of legislation on the subject and to endeavour to get a clear conception of its object. It is not necessary to go further back than the Act of 1851. That Act, chapter 28, is called the Common Lodging Houses Act 1851 but it gives no definition of what a common lodging-house is. Section 6 authorises the local authority by notice to require a keeper of a common lodging-house to register such house and section 9 empowers such authority to make regulations respecting common lodging-houses and by section 10 the same authority may impose penalties upon offenders against the regulations. Sections 11 12 and 13 contain provisions as to notice of infectious diseases for inspection at all times when required by any officer of the local authority and as to the cleansing of such common lodging-houses and the drains &c. thereof. Section 14 enacts the penalties for offences against the Act, The Act of 1853 chapter 41 makes further provision with respect to common lodging-houses. It is to be read with the Act of 1851. Section 3 provides that no person shall keep a common lodging-house until the house has been inspected and approved on behalf of the local authority and registered under the Act of 1851. By section 4 it is provided that the local authority may refuse to register any person as keeper of a common lodging-house who does not produce a certificate of character signed as there mentioned. There are other provisions which it is not necessary to detail as to reports from the keepers where beggars and vagrants are received as to powers to remove causes of complaint under the Nuisances Removal Act 1848 in relation to such common lodging-houses and by the 11th section the provisions of the 14th section of the Act of 1851 as to penalties are made applicable to offences under the Act of 1853. It appears therefore that the Acts of 1851 and 1853 are sanitary Acts. They deal with houses to which the very poorest and most wretched class of the population resort and with conditions in which numbers of that class herd together availing themselves of the sordid accommodation offered for which a very low price is charged. In such persons uncleanliness to a large extent and unhcalthiness and even nctual disease infectious or non-infectious will probably be found to exist. If therefore care is not taken to insure cleanliness and other healthy conditions as to air supply water supply and so forth these houses may become a source of danger not only to their inmates but to the general public. The legislation therefore on this subject had for its object by inspection and control to secure for the poor in these houses conditions safeguarding health and preventing the spread of disease which people better off are supposed to be able to secure for themselves (see per Lindley J. in Langdon v. Broadbent Justice of the the Peace January 1878 page 56). The statutes in question are therefore to be regarded simply as measures of sanitary protection. Applying these considerations to the ground on which the decision in Booth v. Ferrett was based, it seems impossible to admit the fact that the house or building in question was carried on for charitable objects and not for gain would take it out of the measure of sanitary protection if otherwise it would be within it. The question is not with what object or with what motive the house is carried on hot whether the house is such or is so carried on as a lodging-house as to be within the provisions of the Act as it is clearly within the mischief aimed at by the Act. It is to be observed that the learned Judges in Booth v. Ferrett differentiated the house in that case from a common lodging-house only on the two grounds which I have mentioned. If large numbers of the most wretched class are sleeping in common rooms insanitary conditions are in the absence of inspection supervision and control not unlikely to arise and it was the object of the law to secure that inspection supervision and control. We fail to see the relevance in this connection of the motive actuating the keeper of such a house whether it be philanthropic or mercenary. Bat the second ground of the decision is that " The Harbour " is not within the statute on the ground that a common lodging-house is open to all comers in this sense that the keeper of such a house cannot refuse admission to any applicant. Is this so? To give to a common lodging-house this character is to attach to its keeper obligations analogous to that of a carrier or a common innkeeper. We are unaware of any authority for this position. The language of Mr. Justice Lindley in Langdon Appellant v. Broadbent Respondent is referred to where he speaks of a common lodging-house as one open to all comers that is as we understand the language where practically all comers are received without discrimination but that is a very different thing from saying that the keeper is under an obligation to receive all comers. We see no reason to doubt that the keeper of a common lodging-house might refuse to admit drunken or disorderly or uncleanly men or men of known evil reputation thieves and such like or any person whom he chose to exclude. Therefore it seems to us on the facts before us that the "Harbour" might be said to be open to all comers. In fact practically all comers are admitted; the very "outcasts" of Rociety are (see page 179 of the Regulations) objects of the humane solicitude of the Respondent. Even verminous subjecLs who are willing to submit to cleansing operations are admitted aud in paragraph 5 of the case before us it is stated that the occupants of the " Harbour " are of the same class as those who frequent common lodging-houses but that into the " Harbour" are received persons who would usually be refused admission because of their filthy condition into registered common lodging-houses. The only restriction on admission which may suggest a difference between the " Harbour" and registered common lodging-houses are the regulations first that the men who are able to pay for better accommodation are not allowed to make the " Harbour " their permanent home and second that the " Harbour " is not to be used to assist idle men to lead an idle life. We cannot assent to the view that this is sufficient to differentiate the two classes of houses. We know of no better description of a common lodging-house than that given by the then Law Officers Sir Alexander Cockburn and Sir W. Page Wood to the effect that a common lodging-house was that class of lodging-house in which persons of the poorer class are received for short periods and although strangers to one another are allowed to inhabit one common room. If this be the proper description of a common lodging-house as we think it is we cannot see in what material respect it differs from the Respondent's shelter. We arrive therefore without hesitation to the conclusion that such shelter is a common lodginghouse within the Act of 1853. It follows that we think that Booth v. Ferrett was wrongly decided and that the magistrate's decision now given was wrong in point of law. It is to be observed however that the magistrate in question decided in deference to the authority of Booth v. Ferrett and indeed that he was the same magistrate who in that very case had decided that in his judgment the shelter was a common lodging-house. We desire to point out that in delivering his judgment Lord Coleridge was careful to say that he delivered it without any great degree of confidence. Differing from the decision of the Court in that case ought we nevertheless to act upon it? We think not. The case being criminal in its nature could not have been brought under review by appeal. It was decided only nine years ago and there has been no such acceptance of it and no such action upon it as should preclude us from expressing the view of the law which we are convinced is right. It was indeed argued by the learned counsel for the Respondent that since that case was decided there had been legislation on this subject and that the Legislature has not seen fit to alter it but in effect has recognised Booth v. Ferrett. Is this so? If indeed it could be shown that the Legislature had subsequently legislated in a way which demonstrated that it was accepting aud adopting the law as so laid down and that it proceeded to further legislate on the express or clearly implied acceptance of that declaration of the law we ought not to disturb the decision in question. But is it so ? We think not. The legislation referred to is the London Public Health Act of 1891. In the first place it is to be observed that that is an Act which applies only to London whereas the Act of 1853 upon which the present question arises is a general Act but further the provisions in the Act of 1891 are not provisions directed to the subject of [10] 74) common lodging-houses. It is a general Act consolidating and amending the laws relating to public health in London. It deals with nuisances offensive trades smoke consumption removal of refuse watercloset regulations unsound foods provisions as to water notification and prevention of infectious diseases and the like. No doubt some of its provisions are applicable to common lodging-houses in common with all other houses but it is noticeable that section 94 which alone refers to houses let in lodgings and which enables the sanitary authority to make by-laws as to them expressly excepts common lodging-houses from this class therefore leaving them to be dealt with under the Acts of 1851 and 1853. We conclude then that there has been no legislation which adopts or proceeds upon a recognition of the law as declared in Booth v. Ferrett. Oar answers therefore to the questions put to us in the case are as follows :—As to the first question we say that this case is not distinguishable in principle from the case of Booth v. Ferrett. As to the second question we say the case of Booth v. Ferrett was wrongly decided. As to the third question we say that the Respondent's lodging-house was a common lodging-house within the Acts of 1851 and 1853. These answers render it unnecessary to consider the question of the admissibility of the evidence tendered by the Appellants and rejected by the magistrate. The result is that the Appeal will be allowed and that the case will be remitted to the learned magistrate with an intimation of our judgment upon it Under the circumstances there will be no costs of the Appeal and having regard to the decision of Booth v. Ferrett on which the Respondents were justified in acting the learned magistrate will no doubt think that the smallest nominal fine will meet the justice of the case. We desire to say that we should regret if the result of our decision should seriously interfere with the humane work of the Respondent. We do not think it will but whether it will or not the law must be observed. We have read the careful regulations framed for the good government of the " Harbour " and the Respondent's other similar houses and have noticed the anxiety manifested in those rules not only to insure observance of all conditions necessary to secure cleanliness and good health and to prevent the growth and the spread of disease but also to observe the law whatever that law may be. Indeed part 2 chapter 2 rule 24 of the Respondent's regulations expressly provides that every shelter shall be fitted in accordance with the requirements of the sanitary authorities of the district. On the other hand we trust that those who are charged with the enforcement of the law will do all they can consistently with their duty and consistently with their effecting the objects of the law to avoid anything like harshness or unreasonableness in its enforcement. The Victoria Home, Whitechapel-road. Logsdon v. Trotter. Mr. Justice Channell—In this case which was argued before us yesterday we have now to give judgment and I think myself it is a case of some difficulty for reasons which I will explain. We have the advantage of having had quite recently an authoritative decision upon a point which is extremely similar namely upon the question whether a Salvation Army shelter was a common lodging-house and we had yesterday the judgment in that case read and subsequently when the facts of this present case were read by Mr. Jelf from the special case I confess that it struck me in the first instance that the two institutions were practically identical. But Mr. Daldy pointed out some distinctions between them he pointed out (and I think when you look at the facts there is no doubt about it) that thiB is if I may say so a somewhat higher class of thing than the Salvation Army shelter and consequently if we did that which is so very easy to do and much the most usual thing for us to do namely simply say that the facts of this case are so like the facts in the other case that we cannot distinguish between them we are starting the Courts upon a sort of progress which anybody who knows case-law at all knows is constantly taking place —We say this case is so like the other that we cannot distinguish it. Then there comes another case of Logsdon v. Somebody else which is one in which the London County Council take proceedings. That case is very like this one and so you go on until you land yourself into deciding that something is a common lodging-house which nobody who began at the beginning would say was a common lodginghouse. Consequently it is very necessary it seems to me to look not only at whether this is so near the other one that one is bound to say that if one is within the description of " common lodging-house " the other is. But one ought to look at it a little differently from that and one ought to look at the previous case and try and find out if one can (it is not always easy and I am not sure that it is easy in this case) where they drew the line and then see not merely whether this case is only one very small step beyond the other case but whether that small step does not take you over that line so laid down. It is very necessary as I think to approach the case from that point of view otherwise we are starting the Courts upon that sort of progress which they have often gone through in similar cases which led them to a point to which they never would have gone but for that gradual progress. That being so it seems to me that we have got to look and see if we can what principle was laid down in this case of Logsdon v. Booth to define what was a common lodging-house. Now there have been I think four different things mentioned in the various cases upon the subject as either the only tests or some of the possible tests as to whether a thing was a common lodging-house or not. One of those namely the one that was applied in Booth v. Ferrett as to the institution being one not carried on for profit has been conclusively disposed of by the decision of Logsdon v. Booth. One of the four therefore has been got rid of altogether and of course it is the one upon which the present case before us of Logsdon v. Trotter was in fact decided because at the time that was before the magistrate Booth x. Ferrett was standing as an authority and this case coming within the principle laid down in that case was decided by the magistrate upon that case. But it does so happen that the case before us does set out the facts sufficiently I think for us to be able to form our judgment. It might have happened and Mr. Daldy suggested that it did happen I think in this case that in consequence of the case being stated practically upon another point he thought that this would have to go back to the magistrate for him to find again other facts and to consider whether or not Booth v. Ferrett having been disposed of this case came within the description of "common lodging-house" upon other grounds. But I think that the facts are sufficiently found by the magistrate for us to be enabled to deal with it. Now the other three matters that have been mentioned are these first of all that " common lodginghouse " means a low class lodging-house a lodging-house for people of low class I do not mean to use the word offensively because of course they cannot help it very often but a class of society which are dirty likely to be diseased and so on. Now all the cases I think agree that that is one element and that unless the place that you are considering is a lodging-house for people of that class it does not come within the description "common lodging-house" but it does not quite follow that that is conclusive. That is necessary and if that is necessary I think that element existsin the present case. It is true that in this case efforts have been made by the benevolent people who carry on the institution to raise these poor people and make them cleaner and better in many ways and the result is that a certain number of their inmates are somewhat above the average of the people in a common lodging-house, but it is only a certain number What is found on the bottom of paragraph 6 of the case is that " a certain number of the lodgers are of a better class than the 'dosser' or the inhabitants of an ordinary common lodging-house but substantially the lodgers are of the ' dosser' description." Now that being so this institution fulfils that 75 requirement of a " common lodging-house." Then another thing that has been suggested which was suggested apparently and made as far as one can seethe principle of the decision in Langdon v. Broadbent which was a case decided by Mr. Justice Grove and Mr. Justice Lindley reported injustices of the Peace was that " common lodging-house " meant a lodging-house that is open to allj comers. " It is evident" aays Mr. Justice Lindley " that the houses were lodging-houses open to all comers and therefore requiring supervision in order to ensure cleanliness and good order therein. The higher classes of society will not go to dirty lodging-houses and exercise the necessary supervision for themselves. The evidence shows that this house did require supervision " and so on. Now that was dealt with in the judgment in Logsdon v. Booth and it appears to have been dealt with in this way, if that meant as it was apparently understood to mean. I think it appears by the argument of counsel at any rate in Booth v. Ferrett that it was understood to mean that it was open to all comers in the sense that the keeper of such house cannot refuse admission to any applicant—then it has been clearly negatived by this decision of Logsdon v. Booth. The Lord Chief Justice points out "We see no reason to doubt that the keeper of a common lodging-house might refuse to admit drunken or disorderly or uncleanly men or men of known evil reputation thieves and such like or any person whom he chose to exclude " that is to say that a person who keeps what is admittedly a common lodging-house and which nobody would doubt to be a common lodging-house and is in point of fact registered may still if he please exclude persons and he is not under any obligation at common law or by statute or otherwise to take in everybody. He is not therefore like a common carrier or any person upon whom an obligation is cast by the law, if he exercises the employment at all to take in everybody. If it meant that that has been negatived. It has been said that that is not the necessary requirement of a thing being a common lodging-house but in a rather less wide sense it has not been I think negatived. On the contrary it has been rather affirmed and it has been therefore rather explained than negatived. I think it has been explained to mean that where the place is so open to all comers that the fact of a person being dirty and being possibly infectious being of a character and appearance that he is likely to disseminate something that is offensive or dangerous amongst the other people with whom he is associated the fact that it is open to people of that class and that they are not necessarily excluded by reason of their being of that class is a necessary element. It is one of the things that is required in order to bring the house within the mischief of the statute. In that sense it seems again that this institution comes within it. The words of the Lord Chief Justice which I have just read "We see no reason to doubt that the keeper of a common lodging-hcuse might refuse to admit drunken or disorderly or uncleanly men of know and evil reputation thieves and such like " are almost identical with the words found in this case as to what people are in fact excluded. It is paragraph 9 " Only men are admitted as lodgers. Men who are drunk and disorderly or who are suspected of being criminals or who are verminous are not admitted. Save as aforesaid all comers (being men) are admitted upon pay.nent to the said new block." The people therefore who are excluded are described almost in identical words with what the Lord Chief Justice says are people who might be excluded in a common lodging-house. Consequently and so far as this requirement of a common lodging-house is concerned the present institution seems to come within it that is to say it is in fact open to people of a class who are likely to be dangerous to the people with whom they associate and likely to bring the institution into the category of one coming within the mischief of this Aet of Parliament. 1 think therefore that that requirement is met. Then there remains one point only and that is the one which I think Mr. Daldy has principally dwelt upon. It has been suggested that a common " lodging-house" means a place where people live in common and in this particular case the definition of the law officers of the Crown who were filling that position at the time or shortly after this Act of Parliament was passed and quoted and it appears to be assented to "We know of no better description of a common lodging-house than that given by the then law officers Sir Alexander Cockburn and Sir W. Page Wood to the effect that common lodging-house was that class of lodging-house in which persons of the poorer class are received for short periods." " Short periods " was afterwards explained by them but I do not think anything particular turns upon that—" and although strangers to one another are allowed to inhabit one common room." The Lord Chief Justice goes on to say "If this be the proper description of a common lodginghouse as we think it is we cannot see in what material respect it differs from the Respondent's shelter. We must take that because it is adopted by the Court as being a proper description at any rate of a common lodging-house. What does that mean "although strangers to one another are allowed to inhabit one common room." Mr. Daldy says "inhabit" necessarily means sleeping and that it means sleeping in the same room. It must be remembered in this case of Logsdon v. Booth that the people did sleep in one common room and it was not necessary for the learned judges there to consider whether that was an essential element or not but there is a previous passage in the Judgment to this effect " If large numbers of the most wretched class are sleeping in common rooms insanitary conditions are in the absence of inspection supervision and control not unlikely to arise and it was the object of the law to secure that inspection supervision and control." I do not think that it is necessary for us (I am not anxious to lay down the principle) to say whether or not sleeping in the same bedroom is an essential to making it a common lodging-house. There is of course this decision of Langdon v. Broadbent to which I referred before in which the Court refused to send back the case to the magistrates to have it re-stated and made clear as to whether or not in that case the people did sleep in the same bedroom. Therefore there is some authority for saying that it is not necessary that they should do so. On the other hand it is possible to say that in Logsdon v. Booth the judges dissented from that. I am not quite clear myself that they did and I do not think that it is necessary for us to lay down any definite rule in the present case and I am not anxious to do so because each case must depend so very much on its own circumstances. I think this much is necessary that in order to make it a common lodging-house the people of the character who are admitted to it which I have dealt with must be allowed so to associate with each other as to make the danger of these insanitary conditions likely to arise and likely to spread. If that is the test and I think myself that it is an important test in the matter then I think we are bound to say that the present institution before us comfs within it. The people do associate with each other in a way entirely within the mischief against which the Act of Parliament provides. Their living rooms are all in common and their sleeping rooms or apartments whichever they are called are only partially separated. These cubicle arrangements seem to me to be not very much more than curtains dividing the beds. They are apparently so divided for the purpose of decency and not for the purpose of preventing infection spreading nor would they in point of fact have that effect. They are no more than screens. Taking that view of these facts I think we are bound to say that applying what appear to be the principles laid down in Logsdon v. Booth this institution is also a common lodging-house as the other institution of the Salvation Army was. My difficulty and my reason for going into it at length is that which I began by stating namely that this is an institution of a somewhat superior class. There are somewhat better arrangements made for the inmates than were made in the other case and there is a higher sum charged. The charge is here not above the charge that is made as found in the case in some common lodging-houses but it is rather above the average. Further there are regulations made by the people who carry on the establishment the trustees or whatever they are called which are intended to have the same effect as the regulations under the Act of Parliament but I think it is impossible to 76 hold that because the proprietor of what otherwise would be a common lodging-house in effect, endeavours himself to carry out the same object which the Act of Parliament has in view that therefore it is not a common lodging-house. That is leaving it to the proprietor to do that which the Act of Parliament makes compulsory. He may or may not do it and the fact that a particular individual or particular individuals endeavour to do it and even the fact that they do it successfully does not take the institution out of a " common lodging-house " and it would be impossible to say it did. The only thing that seems to me is that this case although it is a step beyond Logsdon v. Booth is not a step which takes us over the boundary which is there laid down of ^\hat is a common lodging-house. I only desire to add that in this case the observations which the Lord Chief Justice made in Logsdon v. Booth are equally applicable namely that we trust as the Court there trusted that those who are charged with the enforcement of the law will do all they can consistently with their duty and consistently with effecting the object of the law to avoid anything like harshness or unreasonableness. I say that because although I feel bound to say looking at the decisions and the principles one has to apply in construing the Act of Parliament as to whether this is a common lodging-house that this does come within the description of "common lodging-house " but nevertheless it appears to be an institution that is as well managed as it is at all likely to be when the regulations in reference to common lodginghouses are applied to it. It does not appear in fact to require in this case much intervention but I do not feel entitled on that ground to say that it does not come within the description of "common lodging-house." The result is that in my opinion the appeal must be allowed. Mr. Justice Bucknill—I only wish to add a very few words. The legislature was probably very wise when it omitted a definition of " common lodging-house " from the Acts of 1851 and 1853 because I have been satisfied from what my brother has just said if I had not been satisfied before that there may be and probably are various classes of institutions all to a certain extent supported and certainly started in the first instance by benevolent persons whose first objects are to relieve misery ta a certain extent and to provide temporary homes for very poor and very miserable people. It is quite possible and I dare say it is the fact there maybe at the present time excellent institutions in this country which certainly could not be called common lodging-houses within the meaning of the Act. The question is what is this institution p Stated quite shortly it is an institution called the " Victoria Home " situated in the Whitechapel-road. It is an annexe to a place called "the old block" about which one need say nothing more than that it is in fact registered as a common lodging-house where 500 people find accommodation. This particular new block finds accommodation for about 128 people there being so many beds each bed being occupied singly by a man. What are the facts about the arrangement of this house? Every room so far as I know and certainly the living rooms except the bedroom about which I will say a word or two is occupied in common—the dining hall and the daily living rooms. The kitchen which happens to be in the old block is also used by persons occupying the new block going there for the purpose of cooking their own meals. They do live in common during the day. That is quite clear. They are almost entirely people of what is called the "dosser" class and the "dosser" class is defined for the purposes of this case in the case itself which says "A certain number of the lodgers are of a better class than the 'dosser' or inhabitant of an ordinary common lodging-house but substantially the 'odgers are of the ' dosser ' description." If you get an institution which is occupied in the way I have stated by people of the " dosser" class who one knows perfectly and my brother has said it already are persons who are not only poor which of course is no fault of their own very often but who are very frequently not in a sanitary condition and who suffer from diseases of different sorts. These Acts are sanitary Acts and the object of them a3 I understand it was to afford registration of such houses and inspection by those persons appointed by the authorities to inspect. It is not sufficient that persons who have started these houses and helped to support them by charity have regulations and rules which on paper are all sufficient because one proprietor or one person may do a thing well and another may do it ill—the object of the itatute being that when you have circumstances existing in an establishment which may produce the evil against which the statute law is intended to point that then such houses should be inspected by persons appointed under the law. Now I will say one word about the cubicles. I am not going to attempt to say whether such cubicles may be said in law to be a sort of room. That is not necessary for the decision of this case I base my Judgment on the fact that the people who occupy this establishment are persons of the poorest class persons very often in an insanitary condition and that as they do live together in common during the day that is quite sufficient in the circumstances in this particular case and on the facts of this particular case to enable me to come to the conclusion that the establishment is a common lodging-house within the meaning of the Act of Parliament. I think therefore the magistrate was wrong. Customs and Inland Revenue Acts, 1890 and 1891. The proceedings of medical officers of health under these Acts, as shown in the annual reports, were as follows. In Fulham, certificates were granted in respect of 212 separate tenements and refused in respect of 593. In Westminster, certificates were granted to the owners of 54 tenements in Hogarth-buildings and St. Ann's-buildings. In the latter buildings Nos. 1 to 18 were ordered to be cleansed. In Hackney, certificates were granted to the owners of 14 dwellings containing 40 tenements. In Shoreditch, certificates were granted respecting 24 dwellings. In Bethnal-green, certificates for 228 separate tenements were granted and applications for 196 were refused. In Lambeth, certificates for 53 tenements were granted unconditionally, for 85 conditionally, aud were refused for 69. In Battersea, 68 certificates were granted. The medical officer of health states that many flats are now being built and converted in the parish in order to obtain exemption from inhabited house duty ; as many as 1,207 tenements have been exempted since 1890. In Wandsworth (Clapham), certificates were granted for 18 buildings, comprising 91 dwellings. In Greenwich (Deptford), certificates were granted for 29 tenements. Underground Rooms. In the following districts underground rooms (illegally occupied) were dealt with—In Paddington, 5; Chelsea, 12; St. George, Hanover-square, 3; Westminster, 3; St. James, Westminster, total from date unstated up to the end of the year, 180. In Marylebone, the owner of three kitchens was summoned. In Hampstead 6 were dealt with; St. Pancras, 21; Islington, 41; St. Giles, 6; Strand, 6; Holborn, 10; Clerkenwell, 16; St. Luke, 12; Bethnal-green, 5; Whitechapel, 24; St. George-in-the-East, 30; Limehouse, 7; Mile-end Old-town, 3; St. Saviour, Southwark, 1; St. George-tbe-Martyr, 10; Lambeth, 71; Battersea, 6; Greenwich (Greenwich parish), 2 ; (Deptford), 6 ; Wandsworth (Clapham), 7. 77 Factories and Workshops. The inspection of workshops is a subject which is discussed in some detail in the majority of the annual reports, and from these it would appear that definite progress is being made, especially in the districts in which the duty devolves upon one or more inspectors especially appointed for the purpose. It must, however, be stated that the reports relating to a few districts make no mention of the subject whatever. The other reports, however, show generally that a register is kept of the premises in which work is done, and that these premises are inspected. In several districts a woman inspector is appointed for the inspection of workshops in which women are employed. Such inspectors are employed in Kensington, Marylebone, St. Pancras, Islington, Hackney, and St. George-the-Martyr, in which districts two women inspectors inspect workshops and tenement houses. The results thus obtained are evidently satisfactory. The medical officer of health of Lambeth endeavoured to obtain the assent of his authority to the appointment of a woman inspector, but was unfortunately unsuccessful. Kensington may be cited as an example of the advantages of the duty of workshop inspection being made to devolve on an officer especially appointed for the purpose. An account of the work done by Miss de Chaumont in this district is always included in the report of the medical officer of health, but with regard to the inspection of workshops in which men are employed and which do not therefore come under Miss de Chaumont's supervision, he writes: " Practically no steps have been taken to give effect to the law. These inspections should be taken in hand, but cannot with the present limited staff of sanitary inspectors." Similar obstacles to inspection of workshops presents itself in Hammersmith, concerning which the medical officer of health states that so much of the workshop inspector's time is devoted to dealing with smoke abatement that he has not been able to carry out his duties as a workshop inspector to the extent intended when he was appointed. The steps taken to ensure the exhibition of cards in the workrooms showing the number of workers who may be employed in them is mentioned in a number of the reports, and no reference is made to any unwillingness of employers to comply with this requirement, except in the report of the medical officer of health of St. George, Hanover-square, where, Dr. Corfield states, several large firms object to the notices appearing in the workrooms. In several of the reports it is definitely stated that employers are willingly complying with the law relating to workshops. The medical officer of health of Mile-end, however, states that the necessity of first serving notices for the abatement of overcrowding, and only proceeding for penalty if the notice is disobeyed, creates a difficulty which should not exist, and that the occupier should be liable to penalty whenever overcrowding occurs. Information as to the addresses of out-workers obtained in one district is frequently supplied to other districts concerned; but the work would be much facilitated if occupiers of factories and workshops were required to send to the medical officer of health of the district in which his premises are situated a list of the names and addresses of the out-workers he employs. In my last report I stated that it was desirable that medical men should be informed of the duty devolving upon them of notifying to H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories cases of lead, phosphorus or arsenical poisoning, or anthrax contracted in any factory or workshop. In 1898 the medical officer of health of Hackney had communicated with all the medical practitioners in his district on this subject, and the medical officer of health of Deptford has in 1899 adopted the same course. It would be well if the same steps were taken in every district in London. Bakehouses. The annual reports show that bakehouses were duly inspected in the London districts, and in one report only the subject is not mentioned. In many of the reports the number of bakehouses in occupation in the district is given thus—Kensington, 134; Hammersmith, 59, of which 40 are below ground ; Chelsea, 54, of which 44 are below ground ; St. George, Hanover-square, 41; St. James, Westminster, 22; Marylebone, 93; Hampstead, 39; Pancras, 204; Islington, 246; Hackney, 120; St. Giles, 24; Strand. 24; Holborn, 21 ; St. Luke, 32; City, 40; Shoreditch, 89, of which 57 are below ground ; Bethnal-green, 103 ; St. George-in-the-East, 27, of which 17 are below ground; Poplar (Bow), 29, (Poplar and Bromley), 66; St. Saviour, Southwark, 15; St. George, Southwark, 52, of which 16 are below ground; Newington, 70; St. Olave, 7, of which 5 are below ground; Bermondsey, 66, 18 of which are below ground ; Lambeth, 216; Battersea, 102; Wandsworth (Clapham), 47, (Streatham), 39, (Wandsworth), 38; Lewisham, 98 ; Woolwich, 40; Plumstead, 38. Places where Food is Prepared for Sale. In my last report I referred to the action of the Strand District Board of Works in communicating with other London sanitary authorities and with the London County Council as to the need for larger powers of control over the sanitary condition of premises on which food is prepared for sale. Subsequently, inspection of numerous premises by Dr. Hamer on behalf of the Council had led to the conclusion that sanitary authorities should be empowered to require that food on such premises should be kept under conditions which did not expose it to risk of contamination, and that in the matter of ice cream there are grounds for justifying a claim for more complete control than in the case of other articles of food. The medical officer of health of Shoreditch in discussing the subject gives account of the result of inspection of 138 restaurants, coffee houses, cook shops, fried fish shops, &c., 93 of which were found faulty in one or other respect. A large amount of work was done at the instance of the sanitary authority on these premises. Dr. Bryett reports that the Shoreditch Vestry were of opinion that special provision should be made for dealing with premises, or parts of premises, where food is prepared, that premises used for the manufacture of food should be kept exclusively for that purpose, and that the regulations as to dairies, cowsheds and milk-shops made by the London County Council 83 78 far as they refer to infection or contamination, by gases or effluvia arising from sewers, drains, &c., to cleanliness of receptacles and utensils, and to the preservation, purity and protection from infection and contamination should be extended so as to apply to all places used for the manufacture, preparation or sale of food. Inspection of Food. The food, other than uncooked butchers' meat, which was seized by the officers of the London sanitary authorities, consisted chiefly of fish, fruit, vegetables, eggs, poultry, condensed milk and tinned foods. The reports show that such food was seized in Paddington. Fulham, Chelsea, Westminster, St. James, Westminster, Marylebone, St. Pancras, Hackney, St. Giles, Strand, Holborn, City, Shoreditch, Bethnal-green, Whitechapel, St. George-in-the-East, Limehouse, Mile-end Old-town, Poplar, St. Saviour, Southwark, St. George-the-Martyr, Newington, St. Olave, Bermondsey, Rotherhithe, Battersea, Clapham, Wandsworth, Greenwich and Deptford. In the City, 750 tons of fish were condemned at or near Billingsgate. In the Strand district in which Covent-garden market is situated, considerable quantities of fruit and vegetables were condemned, especially in the hot month of July. Much attention has been recently directed to the sale of tinned food, and the fact was established during the year that a trade is carried on in which blown tins are punctured and afterwards sealed and labelled so as to make them resemble tins the contents of which have not by change in condition, brought about the blowing or bulging of the tins. The following extract from the annual report of the medical officer of health of Limehouse is of interest in this connection— On February 2nd, accompanied by the inspector for the No. 3 district, I seized a large number of tinned goods, lying at No. 3, Sago-street, Shadwell. Knowing that the owner, who was a wholesale merchant, had been previously prosecuted by a neighbouring vestry, but had, unfortunately been discharged, I decided that I should carefully sort each individual tin before proceeding before the magistrate to have them condemned. My plan was this, to divide a parcel of foods into four, allot one parcel to each of the threo sanitary inspectors and to sort the fourth myself. Then I carefully examined each tin that had been rejected by the inspectors so that I could inform the magistrate that each tin which I had seized had been examined by me personally. They included 3,971 tins of milk, salmon, sardines, soups, rabbits, compressed beef, vegetables, Ac. It was proved conclusively at the police-court that he was in the habit of buying rejected canned goods from importers, for the purpose of feeding pigs. In fact the invoices that were produced were marked " pigs' food," but he failed to show that he had ever sold a tin in his life for pigs' food. The tins, when the contents are bad, become bulged or blown from the formation of the gas produced during putrefaction. These tins were pricked to let out the gas, re-soldered and fresh labels pasted over. The result was that the tins would appear good and would remain apparently good for two or three weeks. When I made the seizure, several men were employed putting on these labels. The case lasted five days, and Mr. Dickenson having found him guilty, sentenced him to five months' hard labour. It was a very severe sentence, but not too severe, considering the amount of injury the man could do and has undoubtedly done. The medical officer of health of Bethnal-green also reports that the chief inspector has found that an extensive trade is being earned on in unsound tinned provisions. He writes: " These usually are condemned stores disposed of by the owners, ostensibly for conversion into pig and poultry food. We have ascertained that articles of this nature are purchased by dealers who proceed to prick the bulged tins and resolder them. The old label is then washed off and a new one pasted on. In this state they are disposed of to the keepers of small general shops, and to the manufacturers of cheap confectionery." The chief inspector states that unsound condensed milk is used for making caramels and caramel toffee. In connection with a seizure of unsound condensed milk to be used for such manufacture the owner was fined £25. The inspector, referring to this case, writes: " Since then inspectors Bridal and Mills acting under my instructions seized 125 tins of bad condensed milk at 58, Collingwood-street, and 83 tins of sardines at 71, Cambridge-road. At the time of writing two summonses in respect of these seizures are pending, and I will therefore only add that arising out of them, inspector Bridal proceeded to Islington, and gave such information to the officers of that authority as resulted in their making a seizure of upwards of 2,000 tins of blown sardines, salmon, condensed milk, &c., on the premises of a man who I have reason to believe has been largely engaged in trafficking in unsound food stuffs of this description." Enquiries were made by the medical officer of health of Mile-end Old-town at a large number of small general shops concerning the condition of tins of condensed milk. At the rear of one shop a quantity of such tins were found which were unfit for food. This milk was condensed, and it was then ascertained that the vendor of the "milk lived in Poplar, and was carrying on a similar trade in that district, where he was prosecuted by and fined at the instance of the local authority. In Poplar the inspector seized 71 blown tins of condensed milk. The defendant's assistants admitted that the tins were deposited for the contents being used for the making of caramel toffee, aud he was fined £20 with £10 10s. costs. The medical officer of health writing on this subject says— " I suggested to the Sanitary Committee that it would be advisable to point out to the importers and the wholesale houses the desirability of having tins containing bad condensed milk destroyed altogether, or removed by the local authority as trade refuse (more especially as the importers and wholesale houses now pay to have it taken away) and then there would be no possibility of it being used as human food. I stated that it was manifestly wrong that the contents of tins which have practically been given away for pig-feeding or manure should again find their way into the market. It is not only detrimental to the public health, but it is bad from a monetary point of view as it must interfere with the trade of the shop-keepers, and it must also lessen the business of the wholesale houses and importers of condensed milk. The question was asked, is such milk fit for pig-feeding ? But the Public Health (London) Act, 1891, only relates to articles intended for the food of man The Committee recommended that the various sanitary authorities in London be asked to communicate the suggestion to wholesale dealers in condensed milk in their districts. On another occasion I reported for the information of the Committee and general public, that it was rumoured that the contents of blown tins containing unwholesome condensed milk, since the recent prosecutions are emptied into gallon jars, and thus supplied to dishonest pastry cooks, &c., the opening of such tins and the pouring into the jars take place near a pig-stye, as if for pigs' food, in order to throw the officers of the local authorities ofi their guard. Large seizures of tinned foods were made irt some other districts. In Bermondsey, 181 cases of condensed milk, containing about 7,000 tins, were condemned, the owner being fined £78. Li 79 Newington, 5,664 tins of condensed milk were condemned; in St. George-in-the-East, three cases of condensed milk were condemned ; in Wandsworth, 346 tins of condensed milk, 39 tins of lobster, and 25 tins of boiled rabbit were surrendered ; in St. Saviour, Southwark, 400 tins of condensed milk were condemned; in St. Olave, 7 cwt. of tinned meat and 1 cwt. of condensed milk were surrendered; in Whitechapel, 94 tins of salmon and 28 tins of lobster were destroyed; in St. Pancras, 2,112 tins of salmon and 36 tins of sardines were condemned ; in Lambeth, 23 tins of lobster were seized, and the vendor fined £10. From what has been said above it will be seen that there is a distinct trade in which unsound tinned food is prepared for human consumption, but the trade in food of this quality extends to other articles alsc. Inspections in Mile-end Old-town led to the discovery that a very similar course was adopted in dealing in eggs. The medical officer of health states, that in the course of inspection of houses a large store was found and within an hour after the inspection application was made by the occupier for the removal and destruction as trade refuse of numerous eggs. The premises were then watched and in November were visited by the officers of the sanitary authority, who seized cases containing 3,400 eggs which were subsequently condemned by the magistrate and the defendant fined £15, with £5 5s. costs. Dr. Taylor writes— Enquiries were then instituted by your inspector and myself in various parts of London with the result that we found that a very large trade was being carried on with this class of goods, particularly in the East-end amongst the lowest foreign shopkeepers. We also ascertained that the son of the defendant was employed by wholesale provision merchants to " Candle " eggs (i.e., to separate the good from the bad), and that he had been allowed to take the bad ones away. In other cases he had purchased eggs as waste at prices varying from Is. to Is. 6d. per 100, the price of good eggs at that time being from 7s. 6d. to 8s. per 100. Enquiries were made amongst the small provision merchants in St. George's and Whitechapel, and we discovered a number of them had purchased eggs from the defendant and a large proportion of these eggs had been purchased by customers as good. In July the medical officer of health of Limehouse seized 117 tubs of unsound strawberries in two vans in Devonport-street and took them before the magistrate at the Thames police court for condemnation. The magistrate refused to make an order, as no evidence was produced that they were exposed for sale at the time of the seizure, though they had been offered for sale and refused by a jam manufacturer in Ratcliff half an hour previously. The owner admitted they were unsound, and afterwards made application for them to be destroyed as trade refuse. The Limehouse District Board applied for a mandamus to compel the magistrate to state a case on the ground that a condemnation order was a condition precedent to taking out a summons against the owner of the article, and that all the magistrate had to do upon the application for a condemnation order was to satisfy himself that the article in question was unfit for food of man, that it was not until a summons had been issued that he had jurisdiction to enquire whether the article was intended for the food of man or not; that this was a point of law, and the magistrate was bound to state a case for the opinion of the High Court upon it. The Divisional Court took this view. The absence of any systematic inspection of meat in London gives abundant opportunity for unsound meat to be sold for human food. London receives from other parts of the country meat which cannot be sold locally on account of its condition and there is no doubt a definite trade carried on in meat of a quality which would never knowingly be allowed to be used in any civilized community. Some time ago I had inquiry made concerning the business of a knacker in one of the provincial towns, with the result that it was found that the flesh of animals which had been sent there was removed to premises in a district in the east of London. The occupier of these premises dealt in cat's meat, but the fact that the flesh he received from the provincial town was dressed in the manner in which flesh is dressed for human consumption, strongly suggested the view that it was intended for this purpose. In 1899, the chief sanitary inspector of Bethnal-green kept watch over the London premises where this flesh was received, and ascertained that among the customers of the occupier of these premises was a " manufacturer of high-class meat pies." Having put himself in communication with the officers of other districts, to which this flesh was taken from these premises a seizure of a portion was made in Hackney, where it was being removed to the premises of a sausagemaker. The flesh was unfit for food and as the result of proceedings in the police-court the sausagemaker and the cat's-meat dealer were each fined £50. I have reported at length on the need for adoption in London of a system of meat inspection, similar to that of many large foreign towns, and the subject still awaits the decision of the Council. Until such system is adopted there is not the least doubt that unsound meat will be freely introduced into London to the prejudice of the poor, who, more than any other class, must suffer from the present want of control over the meat supply. Foreign meat entering London through the public slaughterhouses of Birkenhead and Deptford is subject to inspection at the time of slaughter, and that which is received into the Smithfield market of the Corporation is also subject to inspection. In 1899 the medical officer of health of the City reports, 405,406 tons of meat entered these markets, and 1,172 tons were destroyed, of which 1,034 J tons were putrid, 95 tons were diseased, and 42-J tons unsound from accident or other causes. Dr. Saunders says of " wasted " Australian sheep many were condemned, and that some of them, though not absolutely injurious as food, were almost destitute of nutritive property. In St. Saviour, Southwark, as many as 1,520 carcases of frozen sheep were destroyed, but in the reports relating to the other districts no reference is made to seizure of foreign meat arriving dead in England. The only other districts in which any considerable seizures were made were Holborn and Islington. In Holborn where a large meat trade is carried on in shops situated in streets bordering on the City markets, and where a special meat inspector is employed, 3,390 stone of meat were seized, 888 stone of which were diseased and 3,101 decomposed. In Islington, where also a special meat inspector is employed, 8,014 lbs. of meat in slaughterhouses and 1,439 lbs. of meat in shops were destroyed. The appointment of special meat inspectors throughout London is much needed, and especially in districts where the population is poor and low-priced meat is sold. In connection with the subject of food poisoning I may mention that Dr. Lovett, the medical officer of health of St. Giles, consulted me on July 25th as to an outbreak of illness which had occurred 80 among persons who had dined at table d'hote, on Tuesday, the 18th July, at a hotel in that dislrict. Some 90 persons were at dinner on that day, and of these upwards of 30 were attacked with symptoms of gastro-enteritis and 2 deaths occurred. Inquiry was made by Dr. Lovett and by the medical man who attended most of the patients, but they were not able to single out any special article of food as being the cause of the illness. I submitted material from one of the fatal cases to Dr. Klein for bacteriological examination. He found that (1) the intestinal fluid yielded a large number of typical bacillus coli and proteus vulgaris, both normal inhabitants of the intestine ; (2) the intestinal fluid did not yield the bacillus of Gartner—the colon-like microbe associated with meat poisoning in several instances—nor did it contain the streptococcus of infective enteritis; (3) the intestinal fluid did not contain the spores of the anaerobic bacillus enteritidis sporogenes associated with English cholera and certain epidemics of diarrhoea; (4) the intestinal fluid contained an abundance of a slightly mobile short bacillus which in its morphology and cultural characteristics differs from the hitherto observed intestinal microbes. Dr. Klein thus describes this bacillus : " This bacillus is more or less pointed at one end, generally is arranged as dumb-bells, and stains well after Gram's method. It shows slight mobility and on staining for flagella, is seen to possess one, rarely two, fine spiral flagella. It grows feebly and slowly aerobically, but shows good and rapid growth when cultivated anaerobically in glucose gelatine and glucose broth. It forms on agar characteristic, round, translucent disc-shaped colonies with dark centre, resembling those of streptococci. It grows well in milk, which it curdles after three to seven days' incubation at 37 C. It produces slight acid when growing in litmus broth or in litmus milk. It does not form indol in ordinary broth and produces in this only very slight turbidity ; in sugar broth, cultivated anaerobically, it produces strong turbidity. It does not ferment glucose and produces no gas in sugar gelatine or sugar agar." Experiments made to test the pathogenicity of this microbe, with cultures grown both aerobically and anaerobically, on solid and in fluid media and in milk, gave wholly negative results. Disinfection. I appended to my report for the year 1898 a report by Dr. Young, who had made inquiry for the County Council into the provision made by sanitary authorities for the disinfection of infected articles. The annual reports of medical officers of health show that in 1899 in Paddington, Kensington and Battersea the authorities employ a contractor for this work. In Paddington and Battersea the provision of steam apparatus by the sanitary authority was under consideration, and there was probability that such provision would be made. In Kensington this change does not appear to be contemplated. There are other districts of smaller size where the work was done by contract, such as St. Martin-in-the-Fields and Rotherhithe, which under the London Government Act, 1899, will be merged in other districts, and thus will probably have the opportunity of using the steam apparatus situated within the area of the new borough. The same result will probably follow in the case of St. George-in-the-East and St. Olave, now utilising apparatus belonging to hospitals. Mile-end Old-town, Lee and Kidbrook, Eltham, Holborn and Stoke Newington contract with other authorities, and the Act of 1899 will probably lead to new arrangements being made. The constitution of the borough of Wandsworth will probably lead to reconsideration of the arrangements in the constituent parishes which now employ a contractor. The greatest need for change is in the case of Charlton, which does not use any disinfecting apparatus, and St. Saviour, Southwark, which has dry heat apparatus. The constitution of metropolitan boroughs ought to bring to an end the delays which have been primarily responsible for the unsatisfactory arrangements which have hitherto existed in many parts of London. Among the questions which should be considered in this connection is the need for provision of laundry accommodation in connection with the apparatus for disinfection so as to obviate the necessity of householders sending to public laundries articles which are infectious. Provision of shelter during disinfection. In connection with the steps taken by sanitary authorities to provide accommodation for people who leave their houses while these are being disinfected, the reports of medical officers of health supply the following information:—The Hackney Vestry have the plan6 prepared for this purpose, and these plans were under consideration. The Bermondsey Vestry have decided to provide a shelter, and land has been secured for this purpose near the Town-hall. The need for this provision has been pressing, as during 1899 Dr. Dixon states, 82 families, including 101 adults and 132 children were dispossessed of their homes during disinfection. In the City, Dr. Saunders reports, the tenancy of the house previously used for this purpose being about to expire, the erection of a new building has been commenced on the site of the old mortuary chapel. The ground floor is to be devoted to offices, caretaker's rooms, a common room and lavatories, the first floor to rooms for women and children and the caretaker ; the second floor to two large rooms, one for men and boys and the other for women and girls, with bath room and lavatories, and the third floor is reserved for contingencies. The old shelter was used in 1899 by 12 families, comprising 22 adults and 18 children. In Shoreditch it was found that the existing accommodation was unsatisfactory, and the vestry decided to purchase a site and erect a shelter at a cost of £1,200. The site has been obtained. The existing shelter was used in 1899 by 31 persons. The shelter in Woolwich now being erected was nearly completed. The old shelter was used in 1899 by 11 families, including 31 persons. The Lambeth Vestry has provided a new shelter in Wanless-road, the cost of the alteration of Arlingtonlodge for this purpose being £541. The shelter at the wharf was used by four families in 1899. The extent to which shelters are used varies much in the several districts. In St. George-the-Martyr, the house was used in 1899 by 101 families comprising 358 persons. Dr. Waldo, points out that it was most used by persons resident in the ward in which it is situated. In the Strand, St. Luke, St. George-in-the-east, Plumstead and Greenwich parish, the shelter was not used during the year. In the other districts for which the facts are stated in the annual reports, shelters were used in 1899 as follows—Paddington by 21 families; St. George, Hanover-square, twice; Westminster by 21 families; Marylebone, 11 times; St. Pancras by 8 families; Islington by 10 families ; Holborn and Clerkenwell by 37 families; Shoreditch, 8 times; Limehouse by 10 families; St. Olave, 19 times; Deptford, twice; Woolwich by 11 families. 81 The Cleansing of Persons Act. Only a few sanitary authorities have made the provision for the cleansing of persons which this Act contemplates. The only references to the subject are found in the reports relating to tho following districts—In Marylebone, Mr. Wynter Blyth states, the accommodation provided has been used by about 3,000 males, the actual number of baths given being 4,311. The majority of the 3,000 persons had one bath only, 28 per cent, had two baths, and a few as many as 15 baths. Nearly all these persons gave as their address a Salvation Army shelter or common lodging-house. A new building, giving accommodation for women as well as men, has been provided. In the Strand, two people applied for a bath while their clothes were being disinfected. In Hackney, the vestry has decided to make provision for this purpose, and plans of a proposed building were under consideration. In some districts the sanitary authority has arranged with the guardians for persons to be cleansed at buildings belonging to the poor law authority. Such arrangement was made in Kensington, but Dr. Dudfield reports that it was little used, probably because no steps were taken to make the arrangement known to the public. In Battersea, Dr. Kempster has recommended the vestry to make provision for this purpose. Mortuaries. In my last report I stated that in eight districts the mortuary accommodation was unsatisfactory. Plans have since been prepared for the erection in Plumstead of a coroner's court and mortuary. A site has been purchased by the Council in Greenwich for the erection of a coroner's court, and the Council negotiated with the district board for the sale to the board of a portion of the site for a mortuary. The Council has approved plans for the erection in Sun-street, Woolwich, of a mortuary by the Woolwich Local Board, and the buildings are nearly completed. The districts of Paddington and Poplar in which the provision is unsatisfactory are practically not affected so far as their areas are concerned by the London Government Act of 1898, but the districts of Lee, St. Olave, and St. Saviour are merged in larger districts, and hence the need of the provision of new mortuaries within them will have to be considered under altered circumstances. In Battersea, the vestry has decided to erect a new mortuary on ground adjoining the Latchmere-road baths, at an estimated cost of £4,785, and has approved plans for this purpose. The Kensington mortuary has been improved by (inter alia) provision being made for jurymen to view the bodies through a glass screen. Water Supply. The water examiner under the Metropolis Water Acts reported that the character of the seasons was, on the whole, favourable for the operations of the companies. The Thames water was in good condition during 314 days, moderately discoloured and turbid during 40 days, and exceptionally muddy and turbid on 11 days of the year. His report contains a table from which the following is extracted, showing the capacity of subsidence reservoirs and the mean monthly rates of filtration of the several companies— Names of companies. Number of days' supply. Monthly rate of filtration per square foot per hour, 1899. Mean monthly averages. Maximum monthly averages. Chelsea 11.1 1.75 1.75 East London 28.9 .67 .67 Grand Junction 2.9 1.50 1.77 Lambeth 5.0 2.08 2.50 New River 4.4 2.35 2.50 Southwark and Vauxhall 13.2 1.50 1.50 West Middlesex 18.5 1.33 1.50 A statement of average rates of filtration gives insufficient information as to the filtration by the companies. The water examiner calls attention to the insufficiency of the storage reservoirs of the Grand Junction and Lambeth Companies, and states that each river-deriving company should be provided with 25 days' supply. He also states that it is desirable that the water issuing from each filter should be delivered into a distinct well, so that distinctive samples may be obtained for examination, and failure in the efficiency of filtration may be traced to the particular filter which is at fault. The second report of the Royal Commission of 1897, which was published in January, 1900, contains the following statements— We think that every filter bed Bhould have a separate filter well, so that samples may be taken of each filter bed separately. In some of the companies' works several filter beds drain into the same filter well. If a sample from that well proves unsatisfactory, it is impossible to tell which filter bed is working badly. We also think that the rate of filtration in each filter bed should be automatically recorded by appropriate apparatus, which should both indicate the rate per square foot at which filtration is proceeding in each filter bed, and should record it on a diagram. Apparatus of this kind has been put in use by the Southwark and Vauxhall Company, and should be employed by all the companies. The Royal Commission further express the opinion that, with regard to filter beds, their construction, and the rate of filtration, the time has not yet come when any detailed regulations on these matters can usefully be laid down either by Act of Parliament or by any controlling authority; and that the wisest plan is to leave the responsibility of these details to the companies, who should have the task of finding and adopting the best means of getting a good result, rather than to throw the responsibility of the processes to be adopted and followed upon a Government officer or a local authority. So again with respect to the use of flood water. The Royal Commission state that they have come to the conclusion that it is unnecessary to impose any restrictions upon the taking of flood water from the Thames, and that it may safely be left to the discretion of the engineers of the companies how soon after a flood they will draw water from the river. It may be pointed out that the companies are under the obligation to efficiently filter the water they supply, and some definition of efficiency for this purpose ought to be found. No doubt this wnnld involve antecedent inauirv. but it is a Question which concerns the whole countrv. and is one [11] 82 which the Local Government Board might be asked to determine. Without such definition the statutory requirement is of much less effect than it would otherwise be. The views of the Royal Commission as to purchase and ownership of the water companies' undertakings may be thus stated— (а) That purchase by a public authority is desirable on the following grounds— That the work of rendering potable, by scientific treatment, the river-derived water supply of London should be in the hands of a public authority. That if a public authority became the purchaser, water would be supplied at constant pressure to the highest houses. That unification of the water undertakings would bring in its train facilities of intercommunication and simplification of extension and enlargement of the water supply. That it would tend to the prevention of waste. That it would afford greater facility for supplying East London from the Thames. That it would afford greater facility for raising the large sums necessary for the future supply. That it would be better adapted to meet the prospective requirements of supply in water London. (б) That a permanent Water Board of not more than 30 persons should be formed to acquire the water companies' undertakings by agreement or arbitration, a paid chairman and vice-chairman being appointed by the Local Government Board. (c) That the Board should be empowered to issue a 3 per cent, stock, and in case of a deficit of income to pay interest, to increase the water charges, or levy a rate in aid. The Council promoted a bill for the purchase of the undertakings of the eight metropolitan water companies upon lines similar to those of the bill presented to Parliament in the previous session, and a bill to enable the Council to obtain and to introduce into London an additional supply of water from the watersheds of the Wye and the Towy. The bills were rejected on the second reading. The Metropolis Water Act of 1899 provides for the supply of water by one company to another. The following is a statement compiled from the monthly reports of the metropolitan water examiner, showing the transfers of water which have been effected since July, 1898— Statement showing the transfers of water effected between the London water companies. Date of water examiner's report. Names of companies by which transfers were made. Names of companies to which delivery was made. Period included. Number of days. Sources of supply. Total quantity from each source. Grand total. Resulting daily averag# if distributed orer the whole month. From. To. Gals. Gals. Gals. Aug., 1898 N.R. E.L. July 26 Aug. 31 37 Lea 200,000,000 200.000,000 6,451,613 Sept., 1898 Kent do. Aug. 26 Sept. 30 30 ... 6,000,000 6,000,000 200,000 do. N.R. do. Sept. 1 do. 30 ... 184,000,000 184,000,0OO 6,130,000 do. s.&v. do. Sept. 18 do. 13 ... 62,500,000 62,500,000 2,035,000 Oct., 1898 G.J. N.R. Oct. 12 ... 5 ... 7,000,000 7,000,000 225,800 do. Kent E.L. Oct. 1 Oct. 31 31 ... 6,076,000 6,076,000 196,000 do. N.R. do. do. do. 31 ... 188,883,000 188,883,000 6,093,000 do. S.&V. do. do. 30 ... 157,201,000 157,201,000 5,071,000 Nov., 1898 G.J. N.R. Nov. 1 Nov.' 30 30 ... 94,290,000 94,290,000 3,143,000 do. Kent E.L. do. do. 30 5,604,800 5,604,800 186,820 do. N.R. do. do. do. 30 ... 226,071,000 226,071,000 7,535,700 do. S.&V. do. do. do. 30 ... 134,514,600 134,514,600 4,483,820 do. W.M. N.R. Nov. 3 do. 28 ... 30,000,000 30,000,000 1,000,000 Dec., 1898 G.J. do. Dec. 1 ... 7 ... 21,741,370 21,741,370 701,334 do. Kent E.L. do. ... 9 ... 2,073,200 2,073,200 66,877 do. N.R. do. do. ... 7 ... 51,810,815 51,810,815 1,671,316 do. S.&V. do. do. ... 12 ... 50,946,996 50,946,996 1,643,450 do. W.M. N.R. do. ... 7 ... 10,200,260 10,200,260 329,040 June, 1899 G.J. do. June 1 ... 14 ... 12,030,000 12,030,000 401,000 do. N.R, E.L. ... ... ... ... 59,000,000 59,000,000 1,966,666 do. S.&V. do. June 21 ... 10 ... 46,831,610 46,831,610 1,561,053 do. W.M. N.R. ... ... ... ... 2,000,000 2,000,000 66,666 July, 1899 G.J. do. June 25 July 29 35 Thames 36,507,000 36,507.000 1,177,645 do. N.R. E.L. do. do. 35 Lea 171,291,666 171,291,666 5,525,538 do. S.&V. do. July 1 July 31 31 Thames Well 147,519,142 73,656,000 | 221,175,142 7,134,682 Aug., 1899 G.J. N.R. July 29 Aug. 26 28 Thames 61,621,000 61,621,000 1,987,774 do. Kent E.L. Aug. 6 Aug. 31 25 Wells 4,974,003 4.974,000 160,454 do. N.R. do. July 30 Aug. 26 28 Lea 188,583,333 188,583,333 6,083,333 do. S.&V. do. Aug. 1 Aug. 31 31 Thames Well 209,044,018 75,096,000 284,140,018 9,165,806 do. W.M. N.R. Aug. 30 Aug. 31 U Thames 687,500 687,500 22,177 (6 p.m.) (midn't.) Sept., 1899 G.J. do. Aug. 26 Sept. 30 35 Thames 196,170,000 196,170,000 6,539,000 do. Kent E.L. Sept. 1 do. 30 Wells 6,419,000 6,419,000 213,967 do. N.R. do. Aug. 27 do. 35 Lea 472,647,000 472,647,000 15,754,900 do. S.&V. do. Sept. 1 do. 30 Thames Well 244,850,800 66,139,200 310,990,000 10,366,333 do. W.M. N.R. Aug. 31 do. 30 Thames 28,269,500 28,269,500 942,316 (mid.) (3 p.m.) Oct., 1899 S.&V. E.L. Oct. 1 Oct. 31 31 Thames Well 161,385,295 54,547,200 | 215,932,495 6,696,580 Nov., 1899 S.&V. do. Nov. 1 Nov. 30 30 Thames 18,690,000 18,690,000 623,000 Feb., 1900 E.L. S.&V. Feb. 13 Feb. 14 2 ... 6,000,000 6,000,000 3,000,000 83 Constant water svpply. The chief officer of the Public Control Department has reported that the whole of the County is now, for the first time, receiving a constant supply of water in accordance with the provisions of the Metropolis Water Act of 1871. Upper and Lower Sydenham, supplied by the Lambeth Water Company, and a few houses supplied by the Kent and New River Companies, are situate above the statutory limits of height to which such companies are required to give a constant supply. The London Equalisation of Rates Act, 1894. The Equalisation of Rates Act provides that the London County Council shall in each year form a fund equal to a rate of sixpence in the pound on the rateable value of London. The contribution from each parish to the fund is to be in proportion to its rateable value. The fund thus formed is to be distributed among the sanitary districts in proportion to their population. Where a sanitary district comprises two or more parishes, and the aggregate of the contributions from such parishes is less than the grant apportioned to the district, the difference shall be paid out of the fund to the sanitary authority of the district, and no payment towards any equalisation charge shall be required from any parish in the district. Subject to the above, when the contribution from a parish is less than the grant due, the difference shall be paid out of the fund to the sanitary authority of the district forming or comprising the parish; and if it exceeds the grant due to the parish, the Council shall, for the special purpose of meeting the excess, levy on the parish a county contribution as a separate item of the county rate. Every sum paid to a sanitary authority must be applied in defraying the expenses of the sanitary authority incurred under the Public Health (London) Act, 1891, and so far as not required for that purpose those incurred in respect of lighting, and so far as not required for that purpose those incurred in respect of streets, and where the sanitary district comprises two or more parishes the sum paid must be apportioned among such parishes in proportion to their population, and the amount apportioned to each parish credited to the parish in the reduction of the rate required from such pariah towards the above-mentioned expenses. The sanitary authority is required to render annually to the Local Government Board a return showing the amount of the sum to be paid and the total expenses incurred in respect of the three subjects mentioned. If the Local Government Board, under section 101 of the Public Health (London) Act, are satisfied that the sanitary authority have been guilty of such default as in such section mentioned, and have made an order limiting a time for the performance of the duty of the authority, the London County Council shall, if directed by the Local Government Board, withhold the whole or any part of the payment of the sum due to such authority. The Act provides that for the purposes of the distribution of the fund a census shall be taken on the 29th March, 1896, which census was taken on that date as provided. In other years an estimate of population on the 6th April will be made by the Registrar-General upon returns which the Local Government Board will receive from the authority making the poor rate in each parish showing1 the total number of houses entered in the rate book of the parish. The following table shows the estimate of population on the 6th April, 1899, and the amount of excess of contribution over grant, or of grant over contribution in respect of each district for the year ended 31st March, 1900. Sanitary District. Estimated population, 6th April, 1899. Equalisation charge, being excess of contribution over grant. Net grant, being excess of grant over contribution. £ s. d. £ s. d. Paddington 124,101 7,885 17 11 - - - Kensington 170,414 18,279 1 2 - - - Hammersmith 107,523 - - - 6,781 6 7 Fnlham 122,652 - - - 9,233 2 2 Chelsea 97,606 413 17 2 - - - St. George, Hanover-square 79,340 33,704 6 9 - - - Westminster 50,729 11,640 9 2 - - - St. James 22,891 15,981 1 2 - - - Marylebone 139,197 11,704 4 6 - - - Hampstead 81,165 4,651 6 3 - - - Pancras 239,766 - - - 7,305 5 10 Islington 336,239 - - - 23,455 16 5 Stoke Newington 34,975 - - - 1,521 - 9 Hackney 218,343 - - - 17,223 11 7 St. Giles 36,464 3,575 19 5 - - - St. Martin-in-the-Fields 12,255 12,286 6 5 - - - Strand 23,782 12,056 14 3 - - - Holborn 30,915 4,397 6 4 - - - Clerkenwell 67,330 - - - 3,240 8 11 St. Luke 41,631 1,079 4 10 - - - London, City of 30,225 106,578 17 9 - - - Shoreditch 121,279 - - - 7,127 1 9 Bethnal-green 126,397 - - - 14,453 12 - Whitechapel 77,231 - - - 4,702 15 6 St. George-in-the-East 46,341 - - - 4,540 15 11 Limehouse 57,348 - - - 4,089 4 7 Mile-end Old-town 109,426 - - - 12,419 1 1 84 Sanitary District. Estimated population, 6th April, 1899. Equalisation charge, being excess of contribution over grant. Net grant being excess of grant over contribution. £ s. d. £ s. d. Poplar 169,486 — — — 16,479 6 10 St. Saviour, Southwark 23,355 3,987 3 8 — — — St. George, Southwark 63,979 — — — 5,649 18 10 Newington 120,642 — — — 11,970 7 1 St. Olave 10,895 3,188 10 6 — — — Bermondsey 83,828 — — — 6,388 5 — Rotherhithe 40,093 — — — 2,732 18 1 Lambeth 299,407 — — — 18,529 9 7 Battersea 170,980 — — — 12,369 2 — Wandsworth 209,303 — — — 9,129 19 4 Camberwell 257,626 — — — 22,954 12 3 Greenwich 188,768 — — — 15,012 14 10 Lewisham 120,344 — — — 6,048 18 7 Woolwich 41,687 — — — 1,451 12 1 Lee 43,243 — — — 1,226 3 1 Plumstead 64,608 — — — 7,600 10 8 The Charterhouse 139 287 6 — — — — Gray's-inn 243 356 12 11 — — — The Close of the Collegiate Church of St. Peter 380 25 2 3 — — — Inner Temple 148 556 15 2 — — — Middle Temple 105 340 19 10 — — — Lincoln's-inn 18 467 17 9 — — — Staple-inn 9 60 10 2 — — — Furnival's-inn — 136 10 — — — — Special inquiries undertaken by the Public Health Department in 1899. Sanitary administration of Kensington.—The question of the sufficiency of the staff of sanitary inspectors in the district of Kensington was the subject of inquiry by Dr. Hamer during the year 1899. As the result of his inquiry, Dr. Hamer came to the conclusion that the staff should be increased by the appointment of four additional inspectors, i.e., three men and one woman, or if specialisation of work is attempted, of five additional inspectors, i.e., "four men and one woman," and in making this estimate Dr. Hamer did not take into account the further duties which devolve upon the Borough Council of Kensington in November, 1900. With these views I concurred. A copy of Dr. Hamer's report was forwarded to the Kensington Vestry, and a reply was received from the vestry explaining the views of the vestry on the various points discussed in the report. I was instructed to comment on the reply. The committee subsequently decided that the matter should remain in abeyance until the Borough Council of Kensington was constituted under the London Government Act of 1899. The committee has recently resolved to send to the borough council Dr. Hamer's report and my observations. A copy of Dr. Hamer's report is appended to this report (see Appendix II.). Sanitary condition of cemeteries and burial grounds.—The Council having instructed the Public Health Committee to report as to the condition of the cemeteries and burial grounds chiefly used by the population of the County of London, as to whether further provision for burial is required and whether further regulation is necessary in the interests of public health and decency, Dr. Young made enquiry into the matter and visited the various burial grounds in and near London with the object of obtaining the necessary information. Information obtained by Dr. Young showed that it was impossible to estimate accurately the length of time for which the existing provision of burial ground would suffice, but it was possible to give some indication of this length of time dependent upon different assumptions. The inquiry, moreover, shewed that there would be advantage in steps being taken to encourage methods of interment which aim at the speedy dissolution of the body. Dr. Young's report is appended to this report (see Appendix III.). London Government Act, 1899. This Act divides the whole of London, exclusive of the City, into metropolitan boroughs, and transfers to the borough councils, in addition to the powers previously exercised by district authorities, certain powers previously exercised by the County Council. These powers, inter alia, are as follows— Power under section 28 of the Public Health (London) Act, 1891, of registering dairymen, subject to the power of the London County Council to make by-laws, and in case of default to the provisions of the Public Health (London) Act, 1891, as if the default were a default under that Act. Powers to each borough council to enforce within their borough the by-laws and regulations for the time being in force with respect to dairies and milk, and with respect to slaughter-houses, knacker's yards and offensive businesses. The provisions of the Public Health (London), Act, 1891, as to default by a local authority are to apply as if the default were a default under that Act. 85 Un4er the Act of 1899 each borough council has power to exercise within their borough the provisions of Part III. of the Housing of the "Working Classes Act, 1890, and each borough council has power under section 17 to 25 of the Metropolis Water Act, 1871, with respect to the regulations of any water company supplying any part of the borough. The following table shows the month in which the annual reports of the medical officers of health of London districts were received by the Council— February, 1900 3 July, 1900 3 March „ 5 August ,, 9 May „ 13 Sept. „ 3 June ,, 19 October „ 1 Shirley F. Murphy, Medical Officer of Health, 6th December, 1900. To the London County Council. 86 Medical Officers of Health of London Sanitary Districts in 1899. Sanitary district. Medical officers of health. Battersea W. H. Kempster, M.D. Bermondsey J. Dixon, M.D. Bethnal-green G. P. Bate, M.D. Camberwell F. J. Stevens, M.R.C.S. Chelsea L. C. Parkes, M.D. City of London W. S. Saunders, M.D. Clerkenwell J. Glaister, M.D. (since deceased). Fulham J. C. Jackson, L.R.C.P. Greenwich—Deptford H. W. Roberts, M.R.C.S. Greenwich C. H. Hartt, L.R.C.P. Hackney J. K. Warry, M.D. Hammersmith N. C. Collier, L.R.C.P. Hampstead E. Gwynn, M.D. Holborn W. A. Bond, M.D. Islington A. E. Harris, L.R.C.P. Kensington T. 0. Dudfield, M.D. Lambeth J. Priestley, M.D. Lee—Charlton H. L. Bernays, M.R.C.S. Eltham T. Moore, F.R.C.S. (since deceased). Lee H. C. Burton, L.R.C.P. Lewisham S. B. Jolly, M.B. Limehouse D. L. Thomas, M.R.C.S. Mile-end Old-town T. Taylor, L.F.P.S. Newington G. Millson, L.R.C.P. Paddington R. Dudfield, M.B. Plumstead S. Davies, M.D. Poplar—Bow R. M. Talbot, L.R.C.P. Bromley and Poplar F. W. Alexander, L.R.C.P. Rotherhithe J. Shaw, M.R.C.S. St. George-in-the-East B. R. Rygate, M.B. St. George, Hanover-square W. H. Corfield, M.D. St. George-the-Martyr F. J. Waldo, M.D. St. Giles S. R. Lovett, L.R.C.P. St. James J. Edmunds, M.D. St. Luke G. E. Yarrow, M.D. St. Martin-in-the-Fields J. J. Skegg, M.R.C.S. St. Marylebone A. W. Blyth, M.R.C.S. St. Olave W. A. Bond, M.D. St. Pancras J. F. J. Sykes, M.D. St. Saviour A. C. Elliman, L.R.C.P. Shoreditch L. T. F. Bryett, M.D. Stoke Newington H. R. Kenwood, M.B. Strand F. J. Allan, M.D. Wandsworth—Glapham O. Field, M.D. „ Putney W. T. Orr, M.B. „ Streatham F. F. Sutton, M.D. „ Tooting C. de L. Brock, L.R.C.P. „ Wandsworth P. C. Smith, M.D. Westminster J. Norton, M.D. Whitechapel J. Loane, M.R.C.P. Woolwich W. R. Smith, M.D. Sanitary districts mentioned in Schedule C of the Metropolis Local Management Act, 1855. St. Peter, Westminster (Close of the Collegiate Church) J. Norton, M.D. Gray's-inn E. G. Younger, M.D. Lincoln's-inn S. R. Lovett, L.R.C.P. Inner Temple F. J. Waldo, M.D. Middle Temple Liberty of the Charterhouse G. Newman, M.D. Staple-inn Furnival's-inn APPENDIX 1. County of London. STATISTICS OF NOTIFIED DISEASE, 1891—99. Statistics relating to notifiable disease in the sanitary areas of London (as constituted by the London Government Act, 1899) in the nine years 1891-99. The London Government Act of 1899 substitutes 28 metropolitan boroughs for the 42 local management bodies at present comprised in the administrative county; thus under this Act there will be, including the City of London, 29 sanitary areas in place of 43. The following tables have been prepared to show the prevalence of the notifiable diseases in the new sanitary areas for each of the years 1891-99, inclusive, and will furnish useful material for comparing the incidence of notifiable disease on the new areas, when the London Government Act comes into operation, with that of previous years. The area of the administrative county is slightly altered under the new Act, by the exclusion of the hamlet of Penge, and the inclusion of the district of South Hornsey. The population of Penge in 1891 was 20,375, and that of South Hornsey 16,892. The effect therefore of this alteration of the county area on the case rates for London as a whole is immaterial. Many of the sanitary areas under the new Act practically coincide with the areas defined in the Metropolis Local Management Act, 1855, although, under the new Act slight alterations in boundaries have been made in every sanitary district. It is almost impossible to obtain a reliable estimate of the population affected by these alterations of boundary, but as these alterations are small in proportion to the total area involved, and are also of a compensatory character, the effect upon the case rates is but trifling; for the purposes of these tables, therefore, these slight adjustments of the boundaries of sanitary areas have been disregarded. I am indebted to Dr. T. S. Jackman, medical officer of health of South Hornsey, for the notification statistics relating to South Hornsey, which are included in the figures shown for Stoke Newington in the tables. The populations used in the calculation of the rates shown in the tables have been estimated upon the assumption that the rate of increase or decrease in the population of each district between the census years of 1891 and 1896 has been since maintained. The changes in sanitary areas under the London Government Act, 1899, which are of importance in connection with comparative vital statistics, and for which allowance has been madcv in the following tables, may be summarised as follows— The detached portion of Chelsea (Kensal Town) has been divided between Paddington and Kensington. The detached portion of Wandsworth has been divided between Lambeth and Camberwell. The district of South Hornsey has been added to Stoke Newington. The parish of St. Paul, Deptford, constitutes a separate sanitary authority. The parishes of Greenwich and St. Nicholas, Deptford, together with the parishes of Kidbrooke and Charlton, constitute the new sanitary area of Greenwich. The parishes of Plumstead and Eltham, together with the area of the Woolwich Local Board, form the new sanitary area of Woolwich. The Hamlet of Penge has been detached from, and the parish of Lee added to, the area under the jurisdiction of the Lewisham Board of Works. The district of St. Giles, together with Furnival, Staple, Lincoln and Gray's Inns and the greater portion of the area under the jurisdiction of the Hoi born Board of Works, constitute the new sanitary area of Holborn. The parishes of Clerkenwell and St. Luke, together with the parish of St. Sepulchre, the Charterhouse, and Glasshouse-yard, constitute the new sanitary area of Finsbury. The sanitary areas of St. Saviour, St. George-the-Martyr, and Newington, together constitute the new sanitary area of Southwark. The sanitary areas of St. Olave, Bermondsey and Rotherhithe together constitute the new sanitary area of Bermondsey. The sanitary areas of Mile-end Old-town, Limehouse, St. George-in-the-East, and Whitechapel together constitute the new sanitary area of Stepney. The sanitary areas of St. George, Hanover-square, St. Margaret and St. John, Westminster, St. James, Westminster, St. Martin-in-the-Fields, and Strand together constitute the new sanitary area of Westminster. [12] 2 Small-pox. Case-rates per 1,000 living in London sanitary districts as constituted by the London Government Act, 1899. Sanitary district. No. of cases notified per 1,000 living. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Paddington — 0.02 0.59 0.22 0.09 0.03 0.01 — — Kensington 0.03 0.02 0.61 0.12 0.08 0.07 — — — Hammersmith — 0.02 0.17 0.10 0.05 0.03 — — — Fulham — 0.02 0.30 0.38 0.02 0.02 — — 0.01 Chelsea 0.01 0.04 0.35 0.12 0.03 0.03 — — — Westminster 0.01 0.07 0.84 0.11 0.10 0.04 0.07 0.01 — St. Marylebone 0.01 0.08 1.26 2.18 0.75 0.03 0.05 0.01 0.01 Hampstead 0.01 0.01 0.20 0.25 0.03 — — — — St. Pancras 0.00 0.14 0.51 0.41 0.06 0.02 0.01 0.01 — Islington 0.00 0.13 0.37 0.25 0.08 0.15 0.01 — 0.01 *Stoke Newington — 0.10 0.22 0.10 — 0.04 0.04 — — Hackney — 0.12 0.27 0.17 0.07 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01 Holborn 0.01 0.16 1.50 0.22 0.66 0.01 0.05 0.02 0.02 Finsbury 0.02 0.11 0.30 0.21 0.13 0.06 — — — City of London 0.05 0.14 0.76 0.03 0.18 0.06 0.07 0.03 — Shoreditch 0.02 0.67 0.23 0.24 0.13 0.01 0.01 — 0.01 Bethnal-green 0.05 0.28 0.61 0.66 0.73 0.02 0.02 — — Stepney 0.03 0.15 1.20 0.24 0.68 0.05 0.00 0.01 0.02 Poplar 0.02 0.03 1.30 0.67 0.17 0.05 0.05 0.02 0.01 Southwark 0.00 0.01 0.79 0.12 0.35 0.05 0.00 — 0.00 Bermondsey 0.19 0.01 1.14 0.11 0.34 0.06 0.01 0.01 — Lambeth 0.01 0.09 0.36 0.09 0.18 0.06 0.01 0.00 0.00 Battersea 0.03 0.03 0.74 0.08 0.14 0.05 0.03 0.02 — Wandsworth 0.04 — 0.20 002 0.08 0.01 0.01 0.01 — Camberwell 0.03 0.07 0.59 0.06 0.34 0.05 0.12 0.02 0.01 Deptford 0.14 0.10 0.47 0.14 0.21 0.09 0.01 — — Greenwich 0.14 0.19 1.67 0.23 0.24 0.06 — — 0.01 Lewisham 0.02 — 0.33 0.07 0.02 0.01 — 0.03 0.01 Woolwich 0.01 0.07 1.13 0.35 0.22 0.05 0.03 — 0.01 London 0.03 0.10 0.65 0.27 0.22 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.01 In this table 0.00 indicates that the cases were too few to give a rate of 0.005; when no case occurred—is inserted. Scarlet fever. Case-rates per 1,000 living in London sanitary districts as constituted by the London Government Act. 1899. Sanitary district. No. of cases notified per 1,000 living. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Paddington 2.37 4.79 6.43 2.57 3.80 6.30 4.38 2.50 2.92 Kensington 1.85 4.40 5.55 2.26 3.12 5.89 4.48 2.76 2.58 Hammersmith 2.31 4.65 6.65 3.25 3.69 5.01 3.75 4.31 4.05 Fulham 1.33 5.45 6.98 5.07 3.12 5.37 6.34 6.49 6.50 Chelsea 2.05 5.24 6.29 3.25 5.98 5.61 4.18 3.54 3.04 Westminster 1.91 4.39 6.97 2.74 3.69 4.31 3.43 2.15 2.81 St. Marylebone 2.62 4.96 6.45 3.96 3.53 5.65 2.83 2.23 2.86 Hampstead 2.00 4.60 7.24 3.19 4.13 3.75 2.91 3.08 3.61 St. Pancras 2.65 5.49 10.94 5.36 4.52 4.40 3.90 4.04 3.53 Islington 2.25 5.35 9.17 4.59 5.18 5.96 4.64 3.89 4.32 *Stoke Newington 1.42 7.02 10.47 2.23 3.91 5.77 2.97 3.77 4.47 Hackney 2.58 8.62 10.50 4.97 4.93 7.06 6.35 4.68 4.45 Holborn 2.71 6.52 7.90 2.34 4.24 4.25 4.96 2.43 2.89 Finsbury 4.24 5.64 9.94 3.21 4.39 6.61 5.54 4.86 4.50 City of London 1.88 7.76 8.46 2.35 4.34 6.17 3.15 2.7 2.65 Shoreditch 2.97 6.74 8.20 3.96 4.78 5.70 5.14 3.47 3.01 Bethnal-green 4.32 7.24 11.55 3.97 5.84 9.58 5.62 3.37 3.34 Stepney 2.05 7.99 11.02 4.95 6.41 7.08 6.68 3.38 2.57 Poplar 3.43 8.81 11.25 4.76 5.88 5.60 6.15 3.80 2.47 Southwark 2.83 7.14 9.34 4.59 3.47 5.48 6.19 4.85 4.02 Bermondsey 4.11 6.42 7.23 5.51 4.32 4.68 6.43 4.87 5.25 Lambeth 3.14 6.34 7.89 4.06 4.85 5.29 4.61 3.28 3.30 Battersea 3.96 7.37 9.52 5.23 5.11 6.97 9.41 4.70 4.14 Wandsworth 2.82 5.44 7.66 3.88 3.60 5.23 5.30 3.52 4.36 Camberwell 2.78 6.48 7.65 3.79 3.50 4.73 4.64 3.66 4.34 Deptford 3.99 8.09 10.62 6.76 5.23 6.68 5.63 4.12 6.10 Greenwich 3.12 9.15 6.06 5.26 4.15 5.97 3.06 3.34 7.28 Lewisham 1.98 3.81 6.82 3.32 3.35 3.68 3.84 2.49 5.99 Woolwich 1.51 9.77 8.16 7.07 5.64 5.17 6.05 5.76 8.01 London 2.71 6.38 8.61 4.25 4.52 5.70 5.12 3.76 3.99 *The Notification Act was adopted in South Hornsey in September, 1892, the rates shown for the years 1891 and 1892 relate therefore to the Parish of Stoke Newington; those for the years 1893 onwards relate to the district of Stoke Newington as constituted by the London Government Act, 1899, i.e., Stoke Newington, plus South Hornsey. 3 Casemates per 1,000 living in London sanitary districts as constituted by the London Government Act, 1899. Sanitary district. No. of cases notified per 1,000 living. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Paddington l.58 1.50 2.35 3.04 1.89 2.03 2.68 2.58 2.04 Kensington 1.19 1.17 2.19 1.63 2.22 2.15 1.97 1.28 1.52 Hammersmith 2.96 3.22 2.79 1.86 1.99 2.05 1.46 1.53 1.76 Fulham 0.93 1.13 2.48 3.26 3.57 3.05 3.24 3.81 4.05 Chelsea 2.10 2.15 2.64 2.78 3.67 5.66 3.18 2.09 1.83 Westminster 0.88 1.78 1.81 1.37 1.56 1.64 1.75 1.77 1.49 St. Marylebone 1.06 1.59 2.83 2.03 1.65 2.04 1.57 1.68 1.40 Hampstead 1.59 1.89 2.33 1.36 1.58 2.58 1.39 1.72 1.45 St. Pancras 1.35 1.86 3.31 2.15 2.32 1.97 2.24 2.06 2.37 Islington 2.31 2.34 2.76 2.68 1.79 3.25 2.15 1.59 2.05 *Stoke Newington 1.26 2.22 3.10 1.99 1.79 2.14 1.54 1.54 1.02 Hackney 1.99 2.89 4.31 2.80 2.38 2.73 3.61 3.99 3.19 Holborn 0.79 1.75 2.52 1.59 1.70 1.88 3.07 2.69 1.38 Finsbury 1.80 1.61 4.17 2.11 2.22 3.43 5.02 4.30 2.79 City of London 0.90 2.54 1.93 1.26 1.32 2.26 2.09 1.59 2.04 Shoreditch 1.89 1.74 4.18 2.46 2.05 2.99 3.05 2.10 3.09 Bethnal-green 2.34 4.51 5.79 4.34 3.68 3.50 4.26 2.64 2.68 Stepney 1.61 2.58 3.60 3.19 4.03 4.61 3.80 2.44 2.69 Poplar 2.90 2.90 6.86 4.12 4.61 4.07 4.16 2.76 2.49 Southwark 1.08 1.42 3.71 2.93 2.20 3.25 3.03 3.97 6.23 Bermondsey 1.03 1.18 2.68 3.26 2.05 3.04 2.86 2.37 5.34 Lambeth 1.33 1.91 2.90 2.16 2.27 2.28 2.46 2.70 3.64 Battersea 2.19 2.41 4.22 3.17 2.49 2.49 3.69 4.67 3.49 Wandsworth 1.12 1.82 2.70 2.04 1.54 1.58 2.97 3.01 2.97 Camberwell 1.05 1.27 2.13 2.91 3.61 5.53 4.55 2.67 4.69 Deptford 1.09 1.33 2.76 3.96 5.78 3.48 4.18 3.47 3.65 Greenwich 0.91 0.84 2.68 2.20 3.52 5.80 2.44 2.77 3.67 Lewisham 0.73 1.45 2.62 1.82 1.46 3.76 2.52 3.34 5.12 Woolwich 0.49 1.33 2.11 1.71 2.07 2.96 2.69 2.25 3.00 London 1.52 1.96 3.20 2.59 2.57 3.07 2.96 2.63 3.01 †Including cases of membranous croup. Typhus fever. Case-rates per 1,000 living in London sanitary districts as constituted by the London Government Act, 1899. Sanitary district. N0. 0f cases n0tified per 1,000 living. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Paddington 0.01 — 0.01 — — — — — 0.01 Kensington — 0.01 0.01 0.01 — — — 0.05 0.01 Hammersmith 0.01 — — — — 0.01 — 0.01 Fulham 0.03 — 0.01 — — Chelsea — — — 0.01 — — __ Westminster 0.01 — — — — — — __ St. Marylebone 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 — — — — — Hampstead — — — — — — — — — St. Pancras — — — 0.00 — — — Islington 0.01 — 0.00 0-00 0.01 — — 0.01 — *Stoke Newington — 0.03 — — — — — — — Hackney 0.01 — — — 0.00 — — — Holborn 0.03 — 0.01 0.01 — 0.01 Finsbury — 0.03 — — 0.01 — — — City of London — — 0.03 — — — — — Shoreditch — 0.02 0.01 — — — — Bethnal-green 0.01 — — 0.02 — — 0.01 — Stepney — 0.00 0.01 — 0.00 — 0.00 — 0.01 Poplar 0.01 — 0.01 — 0.01 — — — Southwark — 0.00 0.00 — — — — 0.01 0.00 Bermondsey — 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.01 — — — 0.03 Lambeth — 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0-00 — 00.0 0.00 Battersea — — 0.01 — 0.01 — 0.01 00.1 — Wandsworth 0.01 — 0.01 — — — — — Camberwell 0.00 — — 0.01 — 0.01 — 00.0 Deptford 0.07 0.01 — — 0.02 — — 00.1 Greenwich — 0.05 — 0.02 — — — Lewisham — — — — — — — Woolwich 0.01 — — 0.01 — — — London 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 In this table 0.00 indicates that the cases were too few to give a rate of 0.005; when no case occurred— is inserted. *See footnote(*), page 2. 4 Enteric fever. Case-rates per 1,000 living in London sanitary districts as constituted by the London Government Act, 1899. Sanitary district. Number of cases notified per 1,000 living. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Paddington 0.51 0.40 0.54 0.57 0.58 0.44 0.37 0.59 0.77 Kensington 0.56 0.36 0.57 0.51 0.58 0.55 0.67 0.62 0.66 Hammersmith 0.45 0.46 0.67 0.53 0.55 0.48 0.43 0.57 1.06 Fulham 0.60 0.42 0.58 0.36 0.53 0.46 0.44 0.57 0.84 Chelsea 0.58 0.52 0.90 1.11 0.81 0.78 0.59 0.53 0.58 Westminster 0.50 0.50 0.75 0.85 0.59 0.62 0.54 0.59 0.75 St. Marylebone 0.45 O.51 0.66 1.07 0.96 0.75 0.63 0.72 0.84 Hampstead 0.53 0.70 0.49 0.67 0.85 0.75 0.42 0.60 0.56 St. Pancras 0.93 0.50 0.71 0.84 0.64 0.82 0.92 0.91 1.01 Islington 0.58 0.67 0.81 0.81 0.59 0.69 0.76 0.69 1.04 *Stoke Newington 0.65 0.83 0.75 0.48 0.92 0.44 0.84 0.56 0.59 Hackney 1.09 0.77 1.63 0.94 1.22 0.93 0.97 1.00 1.21 Holborn 1.22 0.69 1.04 0.93 0.69 0.69 0.85 0.48 0.92 Finsbury 0.91 0.53 0.92 0.73 0.81 0.97 0.98 0.53 1.17 City of London 0.45 0.76 0.76 0.91 1.07 0.66 0.76 0.69 3.08 Shoreditch 0.89 0.72 0.95 0.65 0.86 0.94 0.88 0.75 1.39 Bethnal-green 1.16 0.79 1.07 1.13 0.95 0.98 0.82 0.79 1. 57 Stepney 0.89 0.63 1.27 0.76 0.69 0.78 0.78 0.66 1.61 Poplar 1.12 1.10 2.33 1.26 1.05 1.07 1.15 0.94 1.63 Southwark 0.38 0.45 0.65 0.60 0.68 0.69 0.65 0.69 0.85 Bermondsey 1.28 0.73 0.60 0.60 0.67 0.85 0.69 0.58 1.27 Lambeth 0.50 0.42 0.56 0.89 0.74 0.54 0.61 0.54 0.71 Battersea 0.62 0.46 0.82 0.85 0.82 0.65 0.55 0.55 0.93 Wandsworth 0.42 0.52 0.69 0.74 0.74 0.54 0.50 0.61 0.61 Camberwell 0.42 0.43 0.58 0.52 0.95 0.68 0.58 0.45 0.67 Deptford 3.86 0.53 0.72 0.92 0.93 0.68 0.92 0.76 0.78 Greenwich 2.40 0.89 0.58 0.90 0.63 0.50 0.58 1.31 0.96 Lewisham 0.53 0.49 0.55 0.57 0.50 0.67 0.52 0.18 0.66 Woolwich 0.38 0.43 0.58 0.43 2.55 0.58 0.43 0.52 0.54 London 0.80 0.58 0.85 0.77 0.80 0.71 0.70 0.67 0.98 Other continued fevers. Case-rates per 1,000 living in London sanitary dishicts as constituted by the London Government Act, 1899. Sanitary district. No. of cases notified per 1,000 living. 1891. 1892 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Paddington 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.02 — 0.01 0.01 0.01 Kensington 0.03 0.02 0.06 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.10 Hammersmith 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.05 — Fulham 0.02 — 0.05 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.01 Chelsea 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03 o.oi 0.01 0.04 Westminster 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.01 St. Marylebone — 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.03 — 0.01 0.01 0.01 Hampstead St. Pancras — 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.03 — — 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 o.oo 0.03 0.01 — Islington 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.00 o.oo 0.01 *Stoke Newington 0.03 0.03 — — — — 0.02 — — Hackney 0.08 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.02 Holborn 0.04 0.01 — — — 0.01 — — 0.03 Finsbury 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.03 0.05 0.02 — 0.01 0.01 City of London — 0.03 0.03 — 0.03 0.03 — — 0.04 Shoreditch 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.07 0.02 0.01 0.05 Bethnal-green 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.03 — 0.02 — Stepney 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 Poplar 0.08 0.12 0.22 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.02 Southwark 0.01 — 0.01 o.oo 0.00 o.oo 0.00 0.01 0.00 Bermondsey 0.04 — 0.03 0.05 — 0.01 0.04 — 0.01 Lambeth 0.13 0.12 0.21 0.17 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.03 Battersea 0.11 0.05 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.01 — — — Wandsworth 0.01 0.07 0.03 0.07 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.00 Camberwell o.oo 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01 — 0.01 0.01 0.02 Deptford 0.10 0.01 0.02 0.03 — 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.02 Greenwich 0.43 0.01 0.04 — — — 0.01 0.02 — Lewisham — — — 0.03 0.01 — — — 0.01 Woolwich 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.01 0.01 0.01 London 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 In this table 0.00 indicates that the cases were too lew to give a rate of 0.005; when no case occurred—is inserted. *See footnote (*), page 2. 5 Puerperal fever. Case-rates per 1,000 living in London sanitary districts as constit uted by the London Government Act, 1899. Sanitary district. No. of cases notified per 1,000 living. 1891. 1892. 1893 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Paddington 0.03 0.05 0.13 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.05 Kensington 0.03 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.09 0.06 0.06 Hammersmith 0.05 0.06 0.18 0.05 0.02 0.08 0.08 0.03 0.11 Fulham 0.10 0.10 0.18 0.09 0.05 0.08 0.12 0.06 0.10 Chelsea 0.03 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.11 Westminster 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 St. Marylebone 0.01 0.04 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.04 Hampstead 0.07 0.11 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.08 0.03 0.01 0.06 St. Pancras 0.03 0.11 0.10 0.05 0.08 0.09 0.06 0.07 0.05 Islington 0.10 0.15 0.12 0.07 0.07 0.09 0.08 0.06 0.09 *Stoke Newington — 0.03 — 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.15 Hackney 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.09 Holborn 0.03 0.06 0.06 — 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.03 Finsbury 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.06 City of London — 0.03 — 0.03 0.06 — 0.07 — — Shoreditch 0.03 0.09 0.08 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.08 Bethnal-green 0.10 0.11 0.14 0.06 0.05 0.09 0.05 0.02 0.15 Stepney 0.02 0.13 0.09 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.07 Poplar 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.03 0.08 Southwark 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.08 0.05 Bermondsey 0.02 0.05 0.07 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.05 0.04 Lambeth 0.04 0.06 0.09 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.05 0.09 Battersea 0.18 0.10 0.12 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.08 Wandsworth 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.12 0.04 0.06 0.05 0.10 0.06 Camberwell 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.07 Deptford 0.09 0.07 0.14 0.12 0.13 0.15 0.08 0.06 0.07 Greenwich 0.03 0.04 0.12 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.02 0.08 0.09 Lewisham 0.04 0.03 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.02 0.04 0.07 Woolwich 0.08 0.09 0.08 0.04 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.09 0.08 London 0.05 0.08 0.09 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.07 In this table 0.00 indicates that the cases were too few to give a rate of 0.005; when no case occurred—is inserted. Erysipelas. Case-rates per 1,000 living in London sanitary districts as constituted by the London Government Act, 1899. Sanitary district. No. of cases notified per 1,000 living. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. Paddington 1.14 0.99 1.96 1.00 0.84 1.01 1.09 1.01 1.18 Kensington 0.98 1.10 1.62 1.09 1.53 1.61 1.40 1.06 1.22 Hammersmith 0.68 1.22 1.83 0.94 0.86 1.14 0.87 0.87 1.00 Fulham 0.84 1.11 1.54 1.09 0.89 0.85 1.12 0.97 1.37 Chelsea 1.84 2.08 2.28 1.65 1.15 1.09 0.92 0.97 0.70 Westminster 0.73 0.96 1.17 0.69 0.71 0.91 0.91 0.69 0.93 St. Marylebone 1.20 1.71 2.68 1.85 1.66 1.73 1.81 1.29 1.45 Hampstead 0.66 0.77 1.09 0.91 0.69 0.70 0.52 0.52 0.65 St. Pancras 1.59 1.81 2.77 1.97 1.73 1.45 1.61 1.32 1.28 Islington 1.06 1.65 2.15 1.24 1.00 1.15 0.92 0.81 1.02 *Stoke Newington 0.42 0.76 1.07 0.68 0.90 0.91 0.67 0.69 0.79 Hackney 1.01 1.63 2.28 1.28 1.37 1.43 1.26 1.37 1.36 Holborn 1.48 2.67 2.76 2.00 1.77 2.10 2.10 1.71 1.54 Finsbury 1.59 2.42 3.62 1.81 1.59 2.18 1.69 1.16 1.27 City of London 0.66 1.39 2.15 1.23 0.73 1.06 0.86 0.65 0.75 Shoreditch 1.13 2.05 2.58 1.61 1.50 2.39 1.86 1.43 1.67 Bethnal-grsen 1.18 2.61 3.31 2.03 2.41 2.49 2.97 2.52 2.54 Stepney 1.02 2.05 2.75 1.43 1.58 1.77 1.47 1.63 1.43 Poplar 1.78 2.04 3.38 2.15 1.65 1.83 1.54 1.33 1.35 Southwark 1.07 1.83 2.36 1.38 1.11 1.54 1.33 1.26 1.49 Bermondsey 2.00 1.93 2.22 1.66 1.23 1.89 1.29 1.46 1.26 Lambeth 0.93 1.46 2.05 1.06 1.27 1.17 1.07 0.93 1.08 Battersea 1.44 1.86 2.76 1.88 1.53 1.50 1.25 1.10 1.19 Wandsworth 1.13 1.67 2.25 1.42 1.23 1.40 1.24 1.17 1.16 Camberwell 0.92 1.17 1.80 1.33 1.25 1.23 1.16 0.89 0.98 Deptford 1.03 1.71 1.87 1.30 1.30 1.46 1.39 1.21 1.55 Greenwich 1.57 1.85 2.29 1.62 1.08 1.14 1.41 1.18 1.30 Lewisham 0.55 1.15 1.95 1.20 0.91 0.83 0.88 0.63 0.85 Woolwich 0.63 0.98 1.46 0.96 0.93 0.95 0.84 0.85 0.86 London 1.13 1.63 2.26 1.40 1.29 1.43 1.30 1.15 1.23 *See footnote (*), page 2. APPENDIX II. London County Council. SANITARY CONDITION OF KENSINGTON. Report by the Medical Officer of Health, presenting a Report by Dr. Hamer on the Sanitary Condition and Administration of Kensington. (Ordered, by the Public Health Committee to be printed, 5th October, 1899.) Public Health Department, 8, St. Martin's-place, W.C., 10th November, 1899. In presenting Dr. Hamer's report on the sanitary condition and administration of Kensington it is desirable to refer to the circumstances which led to his enquiry. The Public Health Committee of the Council had as early as May, 1896, reasons for raising question as to the sufficiency of the sanitary statf of the Vestry of Kensington, and a letter was therefore addressed to the Yestry asking that the medical officer of health of Kensington should be instructed to report on this subject, and that a copy of his report should be communicated to the Council. In their reply the vestry supplied information as to the number of officers employed by them in connection with their sanitary duties, and stated inter alia that a special committee had been recently appointed to consider whether it was possible to bring about an improvement of the conditions in a particular district of Kensington, known as the dotting Dale district, which had been referred to in the Council's letter. A copy of the report of this committee was forwarded to the Council in July, and from this report it appeared to the Public Health Committee that the Yestry proposed to utilize for the purposes of the Notting Dale district the services of inspectors employed in other parts of Kensington. The Public Health Committee, wishing further information as to the desirableness of this course, asked that facilities might be afforded to Dr. Hamer to enquire and report to them as to the sufficiency of the Vestry's staff of sanitary inspectors. The reply from the Vestry was to the effect that the Public Health Committee had not correctly interpreted their intentions, and that the matter was still under their consideration, and the Vestry suggested that the enquiry should be postponed until a decision had been arrived at. In November a communication was received from the Vestry enclosing a copy of a letter which they had addressed to the Local Government Board, from which it appeared that it was proposed to increase the inspection of the Notting Dale district at the expense of other parts of Kensington. In December the Public Health Committee again sought to obtain from the Yestry a report from the medical officer of health of Kensington upon the subject. In January, 1897, the Vestry informed the Public Health Committee that the Local Government Board had assented to the proposed arrangement for a period of twelve months, but desired that at the end of that period the Board should be furnished with a report as to how the arrangement worked. The Vestry signified their willingness to communicate to the Public Health Committee a copy of such report when made. The following month the Council expressed to the Local Government Board the hope that before coming to any conclusions at the expiration of the twelve months in question the Board would cause the district of Kensington to be inspected by one of their medical inspectors in order that its sanitary circumstances might be fully before the Board. The Local Government Board replied that they would not fail to consider the representations of the London County Council in the matter. The same year the Housing of the Working Classes Committee of the Council had under consideration a request from the Vestry urging the Council to acquire, under Part III. of the Housing of the Working Classes Act, 1890, the worst classes of houses let in lodgings, or occupied by more than one family, which are comprised in the Notting Dale district with a view to the Council putting such houses under the conditions and regulations contemplated by that part of the Act. The Vestry was informed that the application of Part III. of the Act was not, in the opinion of the Committee, the proper remedy, and it was suggested that the Vestry should exercise their powers for the inspection and regulation of houses let in lodgings under section 94 of thePublic Health (London) Act, 1891. In February, 1898, the Local Government Board wrote requesting that the report, for which they had asked, should be sent to them, and the Vestry, without consulting their medical officer, replied that the arrangement which had been made had proved satisfactory. In May, 1898, the Board was asked by the Vestry to sanction the appointment of Mr. Pettit, one of the inspectors, as chief sanitary inspector, and the Board, in reply, stated that they had "decided to hold an enquiry into the details of sanitary administration of the parish, but as, owing to the engagements of their staff, they could not hope the enquiry would be held for some little time, they would not withhold their assent to the assignment of the additional duties to Mr. Pettit as an experiment," In May, 1899, the Public Health Committee had under consideration a monthly report of the medical officer of health of Kensington in which account was given of overcrowding found to exist in the Notting Dale district, and they then decided that Dr. Hamer's enquiry as to that district should be no longer deferred; later it was decided to extend this enquiry to the remainder of the parish of Kensington. [3819 2 It is unnecessary to recapitulate the statements which will be found in Dr. Hamer's report, but it may be stated that the results of his enquiry are to show that whereas in former years the vestry of Kensington compared favourably with other London sanitary authorities in the exercise of the powers which they then possessed, they have not at the present time the staff necessary for the proper exercise of the additional powers which Parliament lias in recent years conferred upon London sanitary authorities. For example, in the Notting Dale district, to which reference has been made, although tenement houses are registered, it has been found impossible to subject them to the frequent inspection which they need. Dr. Hamer contrasts the conditions found in common lodging-houses with those found in tenement houses practically side by side with them in that district, a contrast which is now even more marked than in 1896, when the special committee of the Yestry reported that "It is but right to say that the condition of those houses which arc already registered as common lodging-houses is superior to those which are not, or cannot be so registered." Seeing that common lodging-houses are subjected to weekly inspections by the Council's inspectors, while as regards the other houses it is found "impossible to make a single thorough inspection of each of these tenements in the course of a year," the difference is not matter for surprise. I may say that after study of Dr. Hamer's report I believe his estimate of the staff of inspectors which is now required for proper administration in Kensington is a fair one. With regard to the Vestry's employment of a contractor for the purpose of disinfection of infected articles, and the omission to provide a shelter, I may remind the committee that the Council, ill 1893, expressed the opinion that "the system of arranging with a contractor for the disinfection of infected articles is not an entirely satisfactory one," and "that sanitary authorities who have not yet done so should be urged to provide, free of charge, in accordance with section 60 of the Public Health Act, temporary shelter, or house accommodation, with any necessary attendants, for the members of any family who may have been compelled to leave their dwellings for the purpose of enabling such dwellings to be disinfected by the sanitary authority." Shirley F. Murphy, Medical Officer of Health. Report by Dr. Hamer. The parish of Kensington is bounded on the north, in part of its extent, by the Harrow-road, which separates it from the Willesden district outside the county of London, and in the other part by a detached portion of the parish of Chelsea. On the west it adjoins Hammersmith and Fulham. On the south lies Chelsea, the Fulham-road for a considerable distance constituting the dividing line between the two parishes; the Kensington boundary extends, however, beyond the eastern termination of this road, as far as the northern end of Sloane-street, and includes six houses in that street. On the east of Kensington are Paddington and a detached portion of St. Margaret's, "Westminster. It has been observed* that, "parochially considered, Kensington is not only more than Kensington in some places, but it is not Kensington itself in others. In Kensington parish, for instance, are included Earl's-court, Little Chelsea, Old and New Brompton, Kensal-green, and even some of the houses in Sloane-street; while, on the other hand, Kensington Palace and Kensington-gardens are not in Kensington, but in the parish of St. Margaret's, Westminster." It should be added that a small detached portion of Kensington parish is situated on the north bank of the river Thames in the neighbourhood of the Chelsea-embankment; this portion is separated from the rest of Kensington by part of the area included in Chelsea parish. The Boundary Commissioners, appointed under the London Government Act of 1899, will presumably simplify the existing arrangement of boundaries, by transference of some of the above-named detached portions of parishes to the areas to which, from a topographical point of view, they may be said to properly belong. Kensington parish is coterminous with the sanitary area and the registration district of the same name. Its superficial extent is 2,188 acres and is exceeded by that of 13 of the other existing London sanitary districts. It will probably occupy a somewhat similar position in the more limited list of new boroughs. In respect of population Kensington stands eighth on the list of existing sanitary districts. As regards rateable value it is at present second only to the City of London, but on the list of new boroughs it will presumably take the third place. The parish is about of miles long from north to south and varies in width from about ½ mile at the northern to 17/8 miles at the southern end. The greatest elevation, some 140 feet above Ordnance datum, is attained near its north-western extremity, while in the neighbourhood of the north-eastern extremitv the readings on the Ordnance sheet are some 80 or 90 feet above that datum. The general slope downwards to the south is interrupted by the high ground of Notting-hill, and in Notting-hill Highstreet the readings given are 93 and 90 feet above datum. On the top of the adjoining Campdenhill, upon which stands the tower of the Grand Junction Waterworks Company, an object conspicuous for many miles around, the height above datum is 128 feet. The southern portions of Kensington are low lying, those to the 60uth-east being, however, a little more elevated than those to the south-west. The lowest point is at South-street, Fulham-road, 16 feet above datum. Generally speaking (save in the extreme north) the ground to the west lies lower than that to the east, in correspondence with the fact that a brook formerly constituted the western boundary of the parish, and on the western borders of Kensington, even for some distance north of the Uxbridge-road, the land is at low elevation. In the northern part of the parish the London clay lies superficially, and this holds good as far *Leigh Hunt—The Old Court Suburb. 3 to the south as the northern slope of Notting-hill, while a tongue of superficially lying clay extends through Holland-park, and, turning eastward, continues as far as the south-western extremity of Kensington-gardens. Over a large portion of the western border of Kensington is a deposit of brick earth continuous with that of the existing Hammersmith brickfields. There are also isolated patches of brick earth elsewhere in Kensington, notably one in the Fulham-road. Throughout the rest of the parish there is a gravel subsoil. Roughly speaking, in shape Kensington resembles a top boot with the toe directed towards Hyde-park, or it may be described as a rectangle with a long axis running from north-west to southeast, and an added portion at its south-eastern boundary. Two* great roads cross the parish approximately from east to west, and nearly at right angles to this long axis. The more northerly of these is the road to Uxbridge, the portions of which within tbe parish of Kensington are known as High-street, Notting-hill, and as Holland-park-avenue. This road divides Kensington into two parts, which correspond with the divisions of the parliamentary borough, and are described as North and South Kensington. The more southerly of the two roads is known as High-street, Kensington, and in its continuation as Kensington-road. A line drawn approximately parallel to thist and a little to the south of it, is the dividing line between the two sub-districts of the registration district of Kensington, viz., Kensington town sub-district and Brompton sub-district. In attempting to give a brief outline of the growth and development of Kensington, it will be convenient to bear in mind the manner in which the parish is trisected by the two High-streets, and to refer to the three sections as the northern, central and southern divisions respectively. Thomas Faulkner in his "History and Antiquities of Kensington," p. 4, remarks that the parish "is comprised of three distinct manors which will be hereafter particularly described." Thes9 three manors may be associated, one with each of the artificial divisions just referred to, though of course it must not be inferred that there is any correspondence of actual boundaries. The "manor of Earl's-court," as Faulkner terms it, or the "manor of Kensington," as it may be called par excellence, for it is the "Chenesitun" ‡of Domesday, was held by Aubrey de Vere of the Bishop of Coutances. In 1107 "a very large slice of the manor" was granted to the Abbot of Abingdon, the church being included in the gift, and hence the name St. Mary Abbot's. The original manor house was, says Mr. Loftie in his history of London, "as the name imports in Earl's-court-road, and we shall probably not go far wrong if we identify it with the house long occupied by the great John Hunter, and lately standing near Earl's-court station." This spot is, of course, in the southern division of Kensington referred to above. The manor house of the manor of Abbot's Kensington, is the famous Holland House, in the central division of the three already mentioned. The present structure dates from 1607, when it was built by Sir Walter Cope, and it was much improved by his son-in-law, Henry Rich, Earl of Holland, who became its possessor. The Hollands, of the Rich family, and later those of the Fox family, occupied the house until the death of the last lord in 1859. Macaulay says, "no house ever contained within its walls so many eminent men at the same time." Its most notable association is with Addison, who married the widow of Edward Rich, Earl of Warwick and Holland, and lived there from 1716 until his death in 1719. The third manor house, that of Knotting Barns, stood in the midst of meadows, in what is described above as the northern division of Kensington. This manor was originally part of the property of the De Veres, and afterwards underwent many changes of ownership, which are set out in detail by Faulkner. The population of the whole of Kensington was only 8,556 in 1801; at successive decennial enumerations the numbers were 10,886, 14,428, 20,902, 26,831, 44,053, 70,108, 120,299, 163,151, and finally 166,308 in 1891. In 1896 the enumerated population was 170,465. Loftie's map of "London and the suburbs showing the areas built upon at different dates" indicates that Kensington was for the most part covered with buildings between 1834 and 1867, but that the houses in its northern and extreme south-western portions are, generally speaking, of still later date. The map of Rocque, 1763 (reproduced in Loftie's London), and the map of Kensington in 1820 given by Faulkner, show the same general features, the main difference being a tendency in the later map to indicate some extension of building operations around the scattered areas already shown as inhabited in the earlier one. Faulkner describes the parish in 1820 as including "the villages of Earl's-court, Old and New Brompton, Kensington Gravel-pits, Kensal-green and Little Chelsea. About 400 acres of land (i.e., about one-fifth of the entire parish), were occupied by farmers and market gardeners, and about 124 acres as "nursery grounds." In addition to this there was the "grass land." Beginning with the southern division of Kensington, that portion south of Kensington-road, it may be noted that the chief groups of houses shown in Rocque's map are those at Little Chelsea on the Fulham-road; at Brompton-row, near the south-eastern extremity of the parish; at Old Brompton and at Earl's-court; and finally the houses at the northern border of this division adjoining the main Kensington-road (i.e., the High-street), which formed part of Kensington proper, or of "The Old Court Suburb," as Leigh Hunt called it. Faulkner's map shows "Brompton-park," a noted "nursery garden" mentioned in the Spectator, and which may be cited as an example of one of those institutions for which "Brompton, with its two centuries of nursery garden fame," was celebrated. It also shows Hale House, supposed on insufficient evidence, it would appear, to have been the residence of Oliver Cromwell; through what were once the grounds of this house now runs Cromwell-road. The present *In addition to the two roads to be referred to it may be noted that the old Brompton-road also runs nearly east and west, and the Fulham-road, which has approximately the same direction, forms the southern boundary of the parish. †The precise course of this line is defined as follows—"extending from west to east, along Pembroke-road. Stratford-road and south of the workhouse, then through Cornwall-gardens to Queen's-gate-place, and thence northwards so as to include Queen's-gate, Jay's-mews and Kensington-gore." ‡Hence the name Kensington has been, as Leigh Hunt says, "thought traceable to some landed proprietor of the name of Chencsi." Loftie agrees in discarding the supposition that Kensing was a corruption of Cyuirg. and that Kensington means King's Town. Ee says, "there are Kensings in other places, which afford a better derivation than can be made from Cyning." 4 Thistle-grove is said to indicate the site of what once was Brompton-heath. The Hogmore, or Hogmire-lane, of the old maps, corresponds fairly well in position with the existing Gloucester-road. The Brompton cemetery at the south-western extremity of Kensington is of comparatively recent date, it was consecrated in 1840, and the museums of the south-eastern portion of the parish are of still more modern origin. This last-named part of Kensington is now called not Brompton but "South Kensington," and contains what Loftie calls the "new quarter of fashionable houses," with it may be added the accompanying mews. Towards the northern boundary of the southern division of Kensington, Faulkner's map marks a number of places whose history is minutely detailed by him, and which are also referred to by Leigh Hunt in "The Old Court Suburb." Such are Gore-lane, adjoining the old Gore House, once inhabited by Wilberforce, and later the scene of the celebrated gatherings of Lady Blessington, in which Landor and Thomas Moore were the "leaders among the poets, and Prince Louis Napoleon at the head of the exiles." Hard by stood the house in which Wilkes lived and in which "Junius" was received by him; Kensington House, visited by Dr. Johnson; the house which Cobbett occupied; Kensington-square, in which lived Talleyrand and James Mill, and which is associated with Thackeray's Esmond; and Edward's-square*, in which Mrs. Inchbald it is said, may have often been seen, and in which it is presumed that Coleridge once lodged. Kensington, in the time of Leigh Hunt, was, as he supposed, free "from everything repulsive to the consideration (unless it be one hidden spot, which the new improvements will remove)." This spot appears to have been the famous Jennings'-buildings, for we read elsewhere ('in The Old Court Suburb) of "poor Irish people hanging about at the corner of the first turning on the left hand" on first entering High-street, and it is stated that these persons look like "people from the old broken up establishment of St. Giles' and probably are so, a considerable influx from the llookery in that quarter having augmented the Rookery in this," and so on. Leigh Hunt anticipated that Kensington would not long allow this "ugly blemish on its beauty" to remain. Curiously enough he says nothing of what it will be seen must already in his time have been another "ugly blemish," the potteries district in north-west Kensington. Turning now to the central of the three divisions already mentioned, Faulkner's map here shows of course Holland House, also Phillimore-place where Sir David Wilkie lived, Campden House, the seat of Lord Campden, once inhabited by the Princess of Denmark (afterwards Queen Anne) and her son the Duke of Gloucester, the grounds of which are now being covered with blocks of "Hats"; further, there is the old church, not the modern one which only dates from 1869, and there are the houses about Church-lane, including no doubt that once occupied by Sir Isaac Newton. As Leigh Hunt remarks, there is probably "not an old house in Kensington in which some distinguished person has not resided, during the reigns in which the court was held there." Of the three divisions the northern is of most modern development. Rocque and Faulkner both depict Kensington gravel pits,-f the district bordering upon the Uxbridge-road where it enters at the eastern boundary of Kensington, noted as a health resort and said to be a "favourite residence of artists "early in the present century. Faulkner shows, too, Portobello Farm with the lane leading to it, a few houses at Kensal-green, Notting Barns Farm and Green's-lane near the site of the Princesroad of to-day. In this locality stood Norland House in which was the famous over-flowing well discussed by Faulkner, indeed the merits of the water of this neighbourhood are said to have determined its becoming famous for the laundries which persist to the present day. Hard by in 1837 was established the Hippodrome, a racecourse some two miles and a half in circuit, the fame of which is still commemorated by Hippodrome-place. All this portion of the northern division in the time of Faulkner was grass land, and he says "the whole of this district appears to have undergone but little alteration in respect to culture and division of the land for several ages; although the distance from London is scarcely three miles, yet the traveller may imagine himself to be embosomed in the most sequestered part of the country, and nothing is heard to interrupt the course of his meditations but the notes of the lark, the linnet, or the nightingale." It is interesting to compare with this passage the following from the Registrar-General's cholera report of 1849, (p. 60), i.e., 29 years later,— "On July 28th, at the Potteries, Kensington, the son of a tile maker died of cholera in 42 hours; this death was attributed by the medical attendant to the malaria arising from a pond of stagnant water called 'the Ocean,' a receptacle of dead animals and filth of all descriptions, and into which the adjacent piggeries and privies have been drained for the last 20 years."‡ Again the Potteries are referred to (loc. ext.) — "The most unhealthy place in this district; it may be almost considered a village of pig feeders, without drains, and surrounded on all sides with stagnant pools of water." In the following year the locality was thus referred to in "Household Words," 10th August, 1850— "It comprises some seven or eight acres with about 260 houses (if the term can be applied to such hovels), and a population of 900 or 1,000. The occupation of the inhabitants is principally pig fattening; many hundreds of pigs, ducks and fowls are kept in an incredible state of filth. Dogs abound for the purpose of guarding the swine. The atmosphere is still further polluted by the presence of fat boiling. In these hovels, discontent, dirt, filth and misery are unsurpassed by anything known, even in Ireland. Water is supplied to only a small portion of the houses. There are foul ditches, open sewers, and defective drains, smelling most offensively and generating large quantities of poisonous gases; stagnant water is found at every turn. Not a drop of clean water can be obtained. The medical officers have *So named in "Diagrams of the parish of St. Mary Abbott's, Kensington," published in 1847. This is of course the present Edwardes-square. †Leigh Hunt nays the gravel pits "comprehended all the north and north-western side of Kensington lying between Notting-hill, Bayswater, Holland House, the Church and the Palace." ‡From the annual report for 1857 of Mr. Godrich, then medical officer of health.it appears that "more than half the mortality from this disease (cholera) in Kensington district in 1849 occurred in the Potteries and Jennings'-buildings." 5 from time to time reported the condition of the placc to the hoard of guardians. Fifteen med:cal men have testified to the unhealthy state of the Potteries. The inspector of nuisances has done the same. ...Is there no possibility of cleansing this more than Augean stableP None: the single but insurmountable difficulty being that some of the worst parts of the district arc the property of one of the guardians." Pottery-lane still bears testimony to the situation of the potteries in this district; the piggeries and brickfields persisted until comparatively recent years.* Many of the old houses still remain; a group of dilapidated one-storey cottages was demolished quite recently, and there are other groups of cottages still standing in this locality which present conditions of bad arrangement and dilapidation in such a degree as to suggest their unfitness for human habitation. But to the south-west of the situation in which these old and badly-arranged cottages are placed, there is a group of streets which has achieved a yet greater notoriety in spite of the comparatively recent origin of the houses. These are the streets of what has been in recent years styled the "special area," Bangor-street, Crescentstreet, St. Katharine's-road, William-street (now Kenley-street), and that portion of St. Clementsroad (now Sirdar-road) to the south of the Board school. These streets are situated immediately to the north of St. James's-square, but are approached from the south-east through Princes-road turning north from the Uxbridge-road. In a report prepared by Mr. Chambers Leete and presented to the Kensington Vestry, it is stated that a study of maps, dated 1837, 1846, 1858, 1865 and 1879 leads to the conclusion that the formation of these roads was first commenced about 1846, but that the majority of the houses were not built until between 1865 and 1879. William-street was first mentioned in the poor rate books in 1850, St. Katharine's-road in 1854, Crescent-street in 1860, St. Clement's-road (formerly Union-street) in 1864, and Bangor-street (formerly George-street) in 1865. Oddly enough it appears "that there has been but little fluctuation in the value of property in the Notting-dale district for rating purposesf from the time the houses were built until the present year." The houses of the "special area" were obviously not built for the class of people by whom they are now occupied, though those in Williamstreet (now Kenley-atreet) form a kind of connecting link between other houses in the "special area" and the old cottages of the "Potteries." The houses in Kenley-street are two storeys in height, and those on the south side of the street have no space at the rear. The other houses of the "special area" are for the most part three storeys high, (some moreover have basements), and have a fair amount of space at the rear as well as in front. The writer in the Daily News, of January 24th, 1893, who described "A West-end Avernus," appears to have had these streets particularly in his mind, though he no doubt visited also the older property a little to the north-east of the "special area." ‡This neighbourhood, says the writer in question, "began to develop when the old Kensington rookeries were swept away, the people migrating here."§ The old Kensington rookeries referred to were, no doubt, Jennings-buildings, on the south side of High-street, Kensington, the existence of which in Leigh Hunt's time has already been noted. The inhabitants consisted mainly of Irish people. "The men," Leigh Hunt wrote, "are, or profess to be, labouring bricklayers, and the women market-garden women. They are calculated at a rough guess to amount to a thousand; all crammed, perhaps, into a place which ought not to contain above a hundred." "Baron" Grant cleared away this colony together with Old Kensington House at the time he was constructing, at a cost stated to have exceeded one million sterling, his mansion and grounds. The old house was purchased by him in 1873. Thus in the early seventies when, it may be, difficulty was being experienced in lettingthe new houses then being built near the brickfields and piggeries, some of the inhabitants of Jennings'-buildings may have migrated into these houses. It is noteworthy that the first common lodging-house registered in the streets in question dates from 1869, another followed in 1870, two more in 1871, and one in 1872. There was yet another in 1874, and there were two more in 1875. Thus, already at this time, these streets must have been a recognised halting place for men tramping into or out of London along the Uxbridge-road. It was during the early "eighties," however, that the majority of the existing common lodging-houses were registered. (One in 1879, three in 1880, two in 1881, one in 1882, three in 1883, two in 1884, and then no more until 1889, 1890 and 1891, in each of which years one house was registered.) In 1885, the Vestry's by-laws relating to houses let in lodgings came into force, and among the houses first placed upon the register were quite a large number (some 200) of the houses in the special area. In 1888 occurs the first reference in the minutes of the vestry "to any houses in the Nottingdale district being conducted in a disorderly manner." In the following year representations were made to the police on this question, and again the matter was taken up in 1891 and 1892. The question of the "moral aspect of the district" was then allowed to rest until it was again brought into prominence by the Daily News article in 1893. The information which I have been able to obtain from those who have lived in the "special area" for a number of years, confirms the impression derived from the facts above set out, inasmuch as it seems to show that the present system of letting rooms in this area, if it did not originate, at *Action was taken by the Vestry io prevent the "illegal keeping of swine" in this locality us recently as in 1894. †It cannot be doubted however that there has been considerable fluctuation in the amount received as rent from some of these houses—indeed at the present time it is well recognised in these streets that if a house is let out in single "furnished" rooms it has nearly double the rental value it would have under ordinary circumstances. It must not be assumed therefore that the profit yielded by the property has not fluctuated. ‡Etymologically the designation Avernus might well have been applied to the latter locality, once the site of the miasmatic "Ocean" described above, with its potteries and piggeries, and from the neighbourhood of which the birds described by Faulkner had, of course, long ago vanished. §Dr. Dudfield commenting upon the statement in the Daily News, writes—"This I may say is but a very partial explanation of the origin of the evil. It began with the clearances in the district of St. Giles', Bloomsbury, when the slums were swept away to make room for new Oxford-street. This was followed by other clearances in St. Giles', in 'Camden-place,' Notting-hill, where Clanricarde-gardens now stands, and in 'Jennings-buildings,' High-street, Kensington, which was demolished by Baron Grant." 6 any rate began to become more prevalent about 10 or 12 years ago. Under this system some half dozen or a dozen individuals have immediate control of the majority of the houses in these streets ; these individuals are said in many instances to be merely "weekly tenants," many of them occupy one of the houses of which they have charge, and the remaining houses (two, three or as many as ten or a dozen in some instances) are let "furnished" (sometimes by the night only) or unfurnished, but each room, as a rule, to a separate tenant. Some of these keepers of houses of furnished or unfurnished rooms are also keepers of common lodging-houses. The extension of common lodging-houses in this district in the early eighties no doubt brought with it, as it has done in many other parts of London, a tendency to the development, side by side with such establishments, of tenemented houses providing a greater degree of privacy than the common lodging-house affords, together with a freedom from police inspection—and since 1894, from inspection by the Council's inspectors. In the early nineties these houses had begun to give a distinctive character to the district, and in the years succeeding, as is usually the case when this kind of house is allowed to work out its own development, not only the sanitary but the " moral aspect" of the question began to excite comment. Matters culminated in the Daily News article already mentioned, and in a series of inquiries lo be hereafter again referred to. It may be added that during the last few years there has been a tendency for the character of streets in the neighbourhood of the special area to deteriorate, and that in North Kensington several streets far removed from Notting Dale have, of late, acquired a character almost as unenviable as that of the " special area " itself. Statistics. The population of Kensington, when last enumerated in 1896, was 170,465*, as compared with 166,308 in 1891. Ihe following table, taken from Dr. Dudfield's annual report for last year, "exhibits the growth of the parish since the Metropolis Local Management Act came into operation in 1856"— 1856. 1898. Increase in 42 years. Number of inhabited houses 7,600 22,700 15,100 Population 57,000 172,000 115,000 Rateable value of property £308,000 £2,135,981 £1,827,981 There is a noteworthy excess, as compared with the figures for London as a whole, of females in the Kensington population, which in 1896 comprised 103,463 females, and only 67,002 males. This excess is much more marked in the Brompton sub-district of Kensington than it is in the Kensington Town sub-district, and in the former sub-district especially (judging by the latest available figures, those of 1891) is particularly apparent between the ages of 15 and 35. It is no doubt in large measure due to the domestic servant element in the population. The Kensington Town sub-district (population 122,164 in 1896) contains nearly three times as large a number of persons as the Brompton sub-district (population 48,301 in 1896). Dr. Dudfield, writing in 1893, pointed out that—"The Town sub-district still includes some open spaces, as Hollandpark and Notting-barn Farm. The Brompton sub-district, in which the builder has been busy of late years, many of the houses being of a palatial character, is now practically covered. The sub-districts present marked differences which must be borne in mind in any comparison of their vital statistics. In Brompton the rich and well-to-do form a large proportion of the population, whilst in the Town sub-district there is a considerable and, as I believe, an increasing percentage of persons of the poorer classes."† The total rates raised in Kensington amounted in the year 1895-96 to 6s. l½d., in 1896-97 to 5s. l1d. and in 1897-98 to 5s. 8½d. in the £. The equalisation charge, being the excess of the contribution over the grant, paid by Kensington to the Equalisation Fund, amounted for the first half-year of 1898-99 to £8,931 2s., and for thesecond half-year to £9,026 33. 7d., being a total of £17,957 5s. 7d. for the year, equivalent to a rate of 2.04d. in the £. In 1891 there were 4,132 foreigners (1,690 males and 2,442 females) living in Kensington. Of this number 868 returned France and 1,221 returned Germany as the country of their birth. The birth-rates for the years 1896, 1897 and 1898 were 21.4, 21.5 and 21.2, and were thus much below the birth rates of London for those years (30.2, 30.0 and 29.4 respectively). The marriage rates in Kensington were 20.1, 19.7, and 19.2 in 1896, 1897, and 1898, and in London in those years were 18.0, 18.5 and 18.7. The following table compares the death rate in Kensington from all causes and from the principal zymotic diseases per 1,000 living, and the number of deaths under one year to 1,000 births, with the corresponding figures for London as a whole‡— *Dr. Dudfield has discussed in his annual reports the influence exercised upon the 1891 enumeration of the fact that the census was taken "during the Easter holidays, when many families were out of town." The enumeration of 1896 was made just before Easter, and, as Dr. Dudfield says, the result confirms, to some degree at least, the view that he had expressed that the 1891 total was smaller than it would have been had it not been for the holiday influence, for the increase of population between 1891 and 1896 was greater by 1,000 than that botween 1881 and 1891. †Annual report for the year 1893, p. 2. ‡These death rates are fully corrected for institutions, i.e., by the exclusion of deaths of persons not belonging to but occurring in institutions situated within London, and by the inclusion of deaths of persons belonging to but occurring in institutions situated outside London. 7  Death rate from all causes per 1,000 living. Death rate from principal zymotic diseases per 1,000 living. Deaths under one year to 1,000 births. Kensington. London. Kensington. London. Kensington. London. 1896 16.8 18.1 2.7 3.11 178 160 1897 15.7 17.7 1.8 ' 2.56 166 158 1898 16.4 18.2 2.0 2.77 181 166 As Dr. Dudfield remarks,* "It is an opprobrium to Kensington that the rate of infantile mortality, calculated upon the basis of the number of deaths-under one year to 1,000 births registered, is always above that of London as a whole." He adds that the rate differs greatly in different parts of the parish, "the bad pre-eminence of which in this respect is due to the excessive infant mortality in certain districts in North Kensington." The crude death rate for the whole of Kensington compares favourably with that'of London. When correction is made, however, for age and sex distribution of the population the difference becomes less marked. Thus, the crude death rate of Kensington for the period 1887-96 is 17.0, but the corrected death rate is 187, whereas the corresponding rates for London are 19.6 and 20.9 respectively. The comparative mortality figure (London 1,000) of Kensington for the period 1887-96 is 895, and for the year 1897, 915. It has already been seen that there are differences in the character of various parts of Kensington, that the age distribution of the population is a peculiar one, and that the mortality figures afford reason for concluding that in certain parts of Kensington an excessive rate of infant mortality prevails. Kensington is divided into two registration sub-districts; these it will be seen present a very marked contrast to one another. It is, however, possible to follow up the matter in much greater detail, inasmuch as Dr. Dudfield gives in his annual reports the death rates in the six sanitary inspectors' districts† into which the parish is at the present time divided. These are shown in the annexed table abstracted from tables on p. 17, Annual lteport of 1897, and pp. 17 and 18, Annual Report of 1898. Death rate in the metropolis and in Kensington and in certain districts of the parish, 1897 and 1898. Metropolis. Parish. Sub-distriets. Parliamentary divisions. Sanitary districts. Notting Dale special area. Kensington Town Brompton. North. South. North. Northeast. Northwest. Central. Southeast. Southwest. 1897 18.2 15.6 17.7 10.3 19.7 11.4 18.5 12.7 32.2 16.2 9.1 13.0 55.7 1898 18.7 16.3 18.6 10.2 21.0 11.4 20.5 14.4 31.0 16.4 8.6 13.4 45.5 Tt will be seen from this table that in certain parts of Kensington the rates of mortality are excessive. Among the sanitary districts the "North," and still more strikingly the "North-west," have high rates of mortality. In a portion of the "North-west" district, that known as the Notting Dale "special area," the rates of mortality are seen to be exceptionally high. The population of this "special area" having, under Dr. Dudfield's direction, been taken in the course of house to house inspection by one of the Vestry's inspectors, Mr. Steward, in December, 1895, the medical officer was able in 1896 to discuss the rates of mortality in this area. A second enumeration was made by Mr. Steward in June, 1896, and this time he took account of the whole of the streets comprised in two of the enumeration districts into which Kensington is divided for census purposes, these two districts (Nos. 31 and 56) including all the houses in the "special area," together with certain other houses. It was thus possible to check the results obtained by Mr. Steward for each of the enumeration districts with the returns of the census of March, 1896, and a very close correspondence was observable.* The following figures with regard to the occupation of houses in the "special area" were, moreover, obtained. They show in a striking manner the extent of such occupation. *Annual report for the year 1896, p. 23. †The boundaries of these districts are giveu on pages 2 and 3 of Dr. Dudfield's annual reports for 1897 and 1898. The populations of the districts, as given on page 8 of the Annual Report for 1898, are as follows—North, 33,350; north-east, 30,340; north-west, 16,850; central, 27,240; south-east, 32,200; south-west, 32,020. ‡Mr. Steward made the population of the enumeration districts 2,204 and 2,519 respectively. The census return gave them as 2,241 and 2,515. The population of that portion of the special area, which is situated in No. 31 enumeration district, was found to be 1,943, and that of the portion situated in No. 56 enumeration district 1,866. The total population of the special area was thus 3,809. The total found in the enumeration of 1895 was 3,857. 8 "Notting Dale" special area—Occupation of houses. Number of persons to a house in 1896. Bangorstreet. Crescentstreet. St. Katharine'e-road. Williamstreet. St. Clement's-roafl. south of Board School. To'al houses. Nos. 1 to 63. No. 64 and upwards. 10 roomed houses. 8 roomed houses. 7 or 8 roomed houses. 5 roomed houses. 5 or 6 roomed houses. 7,8 or 9 roomed houses. Under 10 person to a house 2 4 6 41 28 15 96 Between 10 and 15 persons to a house 1 9 16 8 21 4 59 Between 15 and 20 persons to a house 4 12 22 — — 9 47 Between 20 and 25 persons to a 10 2 16 — — 2 30 Between 25 and 150 persons to a house 8 4 1 — — 5 18 30 persons and upwards 3 — — — — — 3 Total 28 31 61 49 49 35 253 The above statement takes no cognizance of common lodging-houses, which, to the number ot 23, are registered and are under the control of the County Council, viz.—11 houses in Bangor-street, with accommodation for 339 persons (31 to a house), in which it was stated that there were 252 persons at the date of inquiry ; Crescent-street, eight houses for 249 persons (31 to a house), in which it was stated that there were 238 persons; and in St. Clement's-road, four houses for 115 persons (29 to a house), in which it was stated that there were 88 persons. The average number of persons to a house at the 1891 census in the whole of Kensington was 7.53. In May and June of 1897 an inspection of houses in the "special area" other than lodginghouses was made by inspectors Pettit and Steward, and from particulars obtained by them the following summary was prepared, giving particulars as to the population and also as to defects observed in the houses. The Notting Dale special area—Summary of the results of the hoiise-io-house inspection. Streets. Numberof houses in strcet. No. of houses let in lodgings. Number of C. L. houses. Number of houses not let in lodgiDgs. No. of houses in which rooms are let in lodgings. Registered lodging hous. s in which there is a resident keeper. Population of houses other than C. L. houses.* Defects observed. No. of houses in respect of whicli notice is necessary. Registered. Not registered. Furnished rooms. Unfurnished rooms. Furnished and nn furnished rooms. No. of families. No. of persons. No. of adults. No. of children. ltoofs defective in ; tructure or in drainage (guttering). Walls defective, dirty, &c. Drains not trapped from the sewer. Insufficient w.e. accommodation. Yards not properly paved. Water supply from cistern, and not from rising main. Other defects. Bangor-street 39 27 l 11 — 13 9 6 9 231 593 429 164 3 23 l — 21 6 — 26 Crescent-street 39 17 8 8 6 18 7 — 8 175 461 341 120 6 19 4 9 14 — 25 Sirdar-road (part of), late St. Clement's-road 41 21 1 4 15 8 12 2 6 161 483 317 166 12 15 10 — 9 9 3 21 St. Katharine'sroad 111 92 7 — 12 54 40 5 52 489 1375 960 415 42 77 51 3 61 41 1 90 Kenley-street, late William-street 50 26 16 — 8 21 16 5 15 158 466 333 133 23 40 29 3 23 10 — 48 Total 280 183 33 23 41 114 84 18 90 1214 3378 2380 998 86 174 91 10 123 80 4 210 *The actual number of persons who slept at the 23 common lodging-houses on May 10th, 1897, was 622, raising the population of the special area to 4,000. Dr. Dudfield makes the following comment upon the particulars relating to population given in the above table— "The most interesting fact ascertained in the course of the inspection was that the population of Notting Dale is becoming more dense. The census in March, 1896, showed an increase of 490 persons in the five years since 1891, equivalent to 2.9 per cent. per annum. The rate of increase during the 15 months commencing April, 1896, appears to have been, as nearly as may be, at the rate of 4 per cent. per annum, the population now (i.e., May, 1897) being, in round numbers, 4,000." Dr. Dudfield pointed out the importance of such increase if it should prove to be continuous, but explained that special temporary causes appeared to be at work. He says, "Hitherto, however, the greater density has been brought about mainly by the occupation of previously empty rooms. Many of the recent immigrants, more- 9 over, are young adults, the males for the most part employed in the construction of the Central London Electric Railway—"good lives," therefore, in the actuarial sense. The matter calls for such watching as may be practicable, lest there should be an increase in room-crowding to the greater detriment of the health of the inhabitants." The following particulars as to the vital statistics of the special area are given by Dr. Dudfield in his annual report for 1898. Notting Dale special area. 1896. 1897. 1898. Population estimated to the middle of the year 3,740 4,000 4,000 Births 118 130 117 Birth rate per 1,000 persons living 31.6 32.5 29.3 Deaths 187 223 182 Death rate per 1,000 persons living 50 55.7 45.5 Infantile mortality— Deaths under 1 year of age 51 56 49 Death rate per 1,000 registered births 432 431 419 Zymotic diseases— Number of deaths from the seven principal zymotic diseases 30 25 22 Death rate per 1,000 persons living 8.0 6.3 5.5 Dr. Dudfield has pursued this question of the eminently unsatisfactory health conditions in the "special area" still further. He found that 723 of the total 3,459 persons admitted to the infirmary during the year ending 27th March, 1897, came from the "special area." Thus this area "which comprises only one forty-third of the population of the parish, contributed one-fifth of the indoor sick." He obtained particulars relating to the 723 admissions to the infirmary from the "special area," and found that of these 505 were admitted upon relieving officer's orders and medical certificates, the remaining 218 admissions representing transfers from the workhouse, and other cases not admitted direct by the relieving officers. Concerning the 505 cases, certain interesting particulars were ascertainable. Thus the nature of the disease is given (vide Annual Report, 1897, p. 136). Again it transpires that "of the 505 cases 155, or nearly one-thii-d, were from the 23 common lodging-houses, which contain accommodation for 703 persons, and shelter an average nightly population of 650; 350 cases having been admitted from the remaining 252 houses, the ascertained population of which is 3,378." Dr. Dudfield proceeds to point out that effort is made to secure the removal of persons at the common lodging-houses when seriously ill, a fact which of course, as he explains, "accounts for the larger proportion of admissions to population from these establishments." Dr. Dudfield still further extended the scope of his enquiry to out-patients, and ultimately obtained the following particulars relating to the 1,689 cases in which medical orders were issued during the year in question. These cases of course include the 505 cases referred to above as admitted to the infirmary. Particulart of sick cases in the "special area," April lst, 1896—March 31st, 1897. Street. Sex. Total. Age. Houses in streets. Cases at or from. Where treated. Males. Females. 0-1 yr. 1-5 yrs. 5-12 yrs. 12-20 yrs. 20-60 yrs. 60 yrs.and upwards. Common lodginghouses. Other houses. Total. Common lodginghouses. Other houses. At dispensary. At home. Bangor-street 150 195 345 19 59 22 24 187 34 11 28 30 68 277 272 73 Crescent-street 124 212 336 23 40 25 22 198 28 8 30 38 79 257 265 71 Sirdar-road (late St. Clement's-road) 121 134 255 14 33 17 9 156 26 4 34 38 24 231 201 54 St. Katharine's-road 218 346 564 61 75 52 45 291 40 110 110 564 426 138 Kenley-street (late William-street) 77 112 189 17 31 23 21 83 14 — 50 50 — 189 137 52 Total 690 999 1,689 134 238 139 121 915 142 23 252 275 171 1,518 1,301 388 On an examination of the particulars ascertained with regard to outdoor and indoor sickness combined, it transpires that only 171 out of a total 1,689 cases were from common lodging-houses. Thus the common lodging-house population, amounting to between one-fifth and one-sixth of the total population, only contributed between one-ninth and one-tenth of the sickness. Again, of 183 deaths in the poor law year 1896-97, Dr. Dudfield states that "the deaths of persons who had previously lived at common lodging-houses were 29, and of other inhabitants 154. The death rate of the district as a whole was nearly 46 per 1,000; of the common lodging-house people 44.6 per 1,000; of the other inhabitants 46 per 1,000." [2] 10 Dr. Dudfield adds, "one conclusion drawn from the inquiry was that (contrary to expectation) the presence of the common lodging-houses did not help to explain the high rate of mortality, the death rate of the inmates of those establishments being lower than that amongst the people resident in the other houses." Sanitary circumstances. In the course of my recent inspection I visited between five and six hundred sets of premises in Kensington, 444 of these being dwelling houses (excluding common lodging-houses) occupied for the most part by persons belonging to the working class. In 285, i.e., in 64 per cent. of these houses, defects of one kind or another were found. This is a higher percentage than that found as the result of similar inquiry made in two east-end districts in 1894, but a somewhat lower percentage than was found in Lambeth in 1895, and a distinctly lower one than that found in St. Pancras in 1898. The number of houses in which defective conditions were met with was as follows—dampness of walls of rooms in 21 instances; dirty condition of rooms in 211 instances; conditions of dilapidation (other than those to be hereafter particularly specified) in 136 instances; defective yard paving in 22 instances; defective roofs in 23 instances; defective traps in yards and cellars in only 5 instances; defective sink waste pipes in only 1 instance; defective rain-water pipes in 10 instances; eaves' guttering absent or defective in 4 instances. In five instances water-closets were found to be "choked"; in 10 instances water-closet pans were cracked or broken; in 21 instances the flushing apparatus was out of order; in 38 instances water-closet pans were found in a foul condition; and in 9 instances the flush of water was specially noted as inadequate. In 23 houses the absence of a dust receptacle or the broken or defective condition of the receptacle provided was noted, and an undue accumulation of house refuse was found at 23 houses. Overcrowding (using this word to include cases in which there was found to be less than 300 cubic feet per person in rooms used exclusively as sleeping rooms and less than 400 cubic feet per person in rooms not used exclusively as sleeping rooms, two children under 10* being reckoned as an adult) was found to exist in 61 rooms. The results obtained in Kensington may be compared with those yielded in other sanitary districts in which similar inquiry has been made. It should be borne in mind that the houses to which the undermentioned particulars relate were for the most part houses occupied by persons of the working class. Sanitary District. Total number of houses visited. Percentage of houses in which defects were found to exist. Number of instances per 100 houses visited in which defective roofs, yard paving, water-closets, traps or rain-water pipes were found. Number of instances per 100 houses visit3d in which there was no receptacle or a defective receptacle for dust, or in which an undue accumulation of dust was found to exist on the premises. Number of instances per 100 houses visited in which dirty conditions or dilapidated conditions, other than those already specified, were found. Number of instances of overcrowding per 100 houses visited. Mile End Old Town 507 32 24 5 10 2 Whitechapel 497 58 61 5 34 9 Lambeth 796 65 36 19 29 26 St. Pancras 567 70 47 22 53 31 Kensington 444 64 33 11 78 14 It will be seen from this tabular statement that, in respect of the number of instances of defective roofs, yard paving, water-closets, traps or rain-water pipes, Kensington compares favourably with the other districts, with the exception of Mile End Old Town. It should be noted, however, that in the above table the question whether the drain of a house is or is not trapped from the sewer is not referred to. I found in certain parts of Kensington in the course of my inspection a number of instances, in which there was reason for assuming that the house drain was in direct aerial communication with the sewer. In respect of overcrowding, Kensington is found to be in worse condition than the East-end districts, but to compare favourably with Lambeth and St. Pancras. It is the class of defective conditions dealt with in the last column but one, however, which is especially found to exist in Kensington, and the prevalence in working-class dwellings of conditions of dirt and dilapidation is by far the most serious matter for consideration at the present time in this parish. In some instances there was evidence of long-continued neglect, in others the defects were of less remote origin, and not a few rooms, the walls and ceilings of which bore evidence of harbouring large numbers of vermin, were said to have been cleansed as recently as two years or even 18 months ago. Dirty condition of houses and the failure to cnforce annual cleansing in registered tenement houses.— In part, no doubt, the hot summer of 1899, following as it did upon a hot summer in the preceding year, is accountable for the quite extraordinary accumulation of evidence of the development of vermin, which I found in a large number of tenements in Kensington in the course of my inspection. Evidence of the kind referred to was of even more common occurrence than in St. Pancras last year, though I did not meet in Kensington with quite such extreme instances of long-continued neglect. Apart from unusual climatic conditions, however, the magnitude of the evil referred to was greatly increased by the fact that such cleansing as had been carried out in the tenements visited had for the most part been done in a very perfunctory manner, and the principle "out of sight out of mind" appeared to have been followed to the exclusion of the application of ordinary rules of common sense. *The limits actually adopted in the by-laws at present in force in Kensington differ from the above in prescribing that two children under 12 shall be reckoned as an adult. The age 10 is, however, that usually prescribed in other districts, and for comparative purposes this age is therefore adhered to in the present instance. 11 Tho by-law in force in registered houses in Kensington which regulates cleansing, prescribes that "the owner of a registered house shall cause the walls and ceilings of every room and of the common passages, staircase, water-closets and outhouses thereof to be thoroughly stopped, cleansed, and, where not papered or painted, well and sufficiently whitewashed or coloured at least once every year, between the months of April and August both inclusive, and at any other time when necessary." There is no requirement that the sanitary authority shall be notified when the work of cleansing is commenced, and the inspector, under existing circumstances, is often quite unaware that such work is in progress, and has no opportunity of satisfying himself that it is executed in a proper manner. In many instances the result is that a covering of fresh wall-paper is made to hide irorn view whatever has accumulated upon the walls—paper, vermin, dirt—all, in fact, that it is deemed advisable to cover up and conceal, and the rooms are perhaps rendered quite inviting to an uncritical eye for a day or two. Then the trouble begins, and at the end of a few weeks or months the futility of the measures which have been adopted is abundantly apparent. That the fault is to a large extent due to the method, or rather want of method, so far as cleansing arrangements are concerned, and is not in special degree attributable to the dirty habits and manner of lite of the tenants, is shown by the conspicuous contrast presented by rooms in registered common lodging-houses as compared with tenements in houses let in lodgings, whether registered or unregistered, in Kensington. In the case of the former half-yearly cleansing is carried out, and it is carried out under the eye of the inspector, with the result that it is an exceptional thing for the walls and ceilings of a common lodging-house to show traces of vermin. Intruders are driven from the open country, so to speak, where traces of their presence are readily discernible, to obscurer hiding places in bedsteads and bedding, in which from time to time, under existing circumstances, they are apt to gain a footing. In many a tenement house in Kensington, however, the walls and ceilings proclaim at once that vermin hold undisputed possession of the field, and under these circumstances to criticise the condition of beds and bedding is quite beside the mark. The Vestry have had under consideration (vide Annual Report of Medical Officer of Health for 1898, p. 125) "the desirability of a proposed by-law requiring the landlord of a registered house to give notice to the sanitary authority, when intending to carry out the annual cleansing, so as to enable the sanitary inspector to supervise the execution of the work." The Local Government Board, however, expressed doubt as to whether such a by-law could be made, and suggested "that a definite period should be fixed for the execution of the work of cleansing, &c., meaning one month, so that the sanitary authority, knowing about when the work would be in progress should have a chance of being able to exercise supervision." There can be no question that this chance would be more likely to be improved by increasing the number ot inspectors, and so diminishing the unmanageably wide field of operations of each individual inspector, than it could be by any alteration of the wording of the by-law. Dirty bedding.—Another very important matter and one to which Dr. Dudfield has directed attention in his recent reports is the need of power to enforce in "furnished" rooms in registered houses the provision "of bedding which should be clean and wholesome and free from noxious insects." The sanitary committee of the Vestry considered this question and recommended that a draft by-law in the following terms should be submitted to the Local Government Board for approval—"The landlord or keeper of a registered house in which rooms are let in furnished lodgings shall cause the bedding and other articles in such rooms to be at all times maintained in a clean and wholesome condition and free from noxious insects." The question is under the consideration of the Local Government Board. The need for some improvement in the condition of bedding in the rooms of tenement houses in Kensington (and it is unfortunately not only the beds and bedding in "furnished" rooms which are at fault) is very apparent at the present time. I made notes in a few instances in which extreme conditions of the kind referred to were observed—cases in which the torn and dirty rags which served as bed linen" were found to be fouled with blood and excreta and to present innumerable marks of vermin which had accumulated during many months. There would probably be no legal difficulty raised to prevent the destruction of such worthless materials, unless perchance the plausible but mischievous contention were successfully advanced that "bed linen" of any kind was better than no bed linen at all. But it is the prevention of the attainment of such extreme conditions that is desirable. In the case of common lodging-houses there is a regulation which requires the keeper to "wash or otherwise cleanse all the bedsteads, beds, mattresses or palliasses, pillows, blankets, rugs, covers, sheets, and chamber utensils as often as shall be reasonably necessary to keep the same at all times in wholesome condition." The persevering enforcement of this regulation has led to the standard which obtains in common lodging-houses at the present time being far better than that of tenement houses generally, and to its presenting a very marked contrast to that in tenement houses frequented by the lodging-house class or a class a little above them in the social scale. In "furnished" rooms the "keeper" provides the bedding as a rule, but it is generally understood that, the occupier is responsible for washing bed linen. In a few instances sheets were said to be changed once a week, and in one house let out in "furnished" rooms, which I visited, the bed linen was apparently actually washed as frequently as this, for a copper was placed at the disposal of the tenants, and the deputy's wife stated that she was very particular about the washing, and the condition of the bedding bore out her statement. In some instances, in which no washing appliances are provided in the house itself, women make use of the public baths and washhouses which are fortunately (so far as the particular district is concerned) situated not far from the locality in which "furnished" rooms abound in Kensington. In most cases, however, very little supervision is exercised in regard to this matter. On asking a deputy in charge of a house let out in "furnished" rooms how often the tenants washed their bed linen, he replied, "when I walks round them, and some of them want a deal of walking round." It was manifest from the condition of the house in question that the standard maintained was far from being a satisfactory one, and the need for exercise of additional control was obvious. Curiously enough this deputy's standard became satisfactory when he left this house and entered the adjoining one. Here, under the same management, was a common lodging-house which 12 presented the marked contrast almost invariably noticeable in the case of common lodging-houses as compared with neighbouring premises. The difference in the two houses, both under the management of the same individual, as regards cleanliness and freedom from vermin was very striking, and as regards the condition of the bedding the state of the two houses sufficiently indicated the improvement which the existence of a regulation dealing with this matter and its enforcement by adequate supervision exercised by the Council'3 inspector are capable of bringing about. The apportionment of responsibility for these dirty conditions as between landlord and tenant.— The proposed new by-law of the Kensington Vestry places the obligation of maintaining, in a cleanly state, bedding, &c., in furnished rooms, following the lines already adopted in the case of common lodging-houses, upon the keeper and not the occupier. It is desirable, however, that the sanitary authority should have power to control the condition of bedding in registered houses which are not let in "furnished" rooms, and here it would appear necessary to make the occupier responsible. It is a very commonly held opinion among deputies and others interested in property of the "furnished" room class that, having regard to the habits of the people for whom such rooms provide shelter, it is useless to attempt to maintain cleanliness. It is undoubtedly the case that much remains to be done in certain parts of Kensington in the way of promoting habits of personal cleanliness, and it is desirable that the exceedingly useful operations of the Baths and Washhouses Commissioners should be further extended with this object, and more particularly that this should be effected in such a way as to appeal if possible to those who stand in most need of the facilities provided. Again, practically no use has hitherto been made of the power given to the sanitary authority under the "Cleansing of Persons Act, 1897." An arrangement for the use of a gas oven and bathing and other facilities at the workhouse was entered into but the scheme has proved an abortive one. In Kensington the difficulty of dealing satisfactorily with this question is enhanced on account of the fact that the sanitary authority has no disinfecting station of its own. In Marylebone steps have been taken to provide, at the Vestry's disinfecting station, bathing accommodation and appliances for disinfecting clothes, and as Dr. Dudfield observes "thousands of cleansing operations are carried out in the course of the year, much doubtless to the comfort of dirty and verminous persons." Similar provision is very much needed in certain parts of Kensington. It would be ridiculous, however, to attempt to excuse the condition of rooms such as those found in large numbers in Kensington on the ground of the uncleanly habits of the occupants. Yet the attempt is sometimes made. People who know little of the conditions of management of property of the kind now in question, and more often persons who are interested in keeping down to a minimum the cost of such management by the avoidance of expenditure in connection with cleansing operations and repairs, are apt to insist, adopting the phraseology of a pamphlet which obtained notoriety at the time of the Housing of the Working Classes Commission, that it is "the pig that makes the stye and not the stye that makes the pig." The experience afforded by common lodging-house administration and by the working of by-laws regulating tenement houses in several London districts in which these by-laws have been enforced, conclusively demonstrates how large a degree of benefit can be made to accrue from improving the condition of the habitation, and there can be no doubt, on the other hand, that the want of proper supervision and the neglect to put in force the by-laws regulating houses let in lodgings are the factors mainly responsible for the continued existence of conditions such as those which obtain in the tenement-houses in several streets and groups of streets in Kensington. Wherever there is neglect to secure that the standard of house accommodation shall not fall below a certain minimum, there is a tendency to the development of conditions such as those which exist in these groups of streets. More or less accidental causes may determine the origin of the mischief, but its growth to serious proportions is dependent upon the absence of effective sanitary supervision. A man of large experience in connection with the management of property in one of these groups of streets practically admitted recently that this was the case. He was explaining that his houses paid him well, but added that he was "not in it early enough," and that the people who made the money were those who let out the rooms "before the Kensington Vestry began to wake up," as he expressed it, to what was going on. That a very large return has been yielded by tenement property in some parts of Kensington of late years cannot be doubted. The facts relating to a particular case were obtained by inspector Steward and are set out on p. 24 of Dr. Dudfield's monthly report No. II. of 1896. The property in question, an eight-roomed house, was held by a non-resident tenant paying £40 6s., or 15s. 6d. a week, in rent and obtaining a return by letting "furnished" rooms nightly, at the rate of £91 per annum. The same man rented other houses in the district and let them on similar terms. The furniture of most of the "furnished" rooms in Kensington which I visited was still, to quote what was said of it in the report of the Royal Commission of 1884, "as a rule, in its wretchedness beyond description." Dr. Dudfield's estimate, therefore, that in such a house as the above "out of the £51 difference between the owner's rent and the tenants' takings, the tenant clears at least ten shillings a week, or £26 per annum," may be held to be well within the mark. As to the owner, Dr. Dudfield writes, "It appears that he acquired the house 10 years ago for £185, the ground rent being £5. The estimated rates and taxes amount to £7, the repairs to, say, £10." Deducting these charges from £40 6s. there remains a profit of £18 6s. or "more than 9 per cent. per annum, assuming the value of the house to be £200." If nothing were spent on repairs the property would yield, on the same basis of calculation, nearly 15 per cent. To a considerable extent the enhanced rentals paid for these "furnished" rooms are attributable to the failure to maintain proper sanitary supervision. For it is, generally speaking, only people who come from groups of streets such as those now referred to who can be compelled to pay such exorbitant rents. In other words neglect to supervise on the part of the sanitary authority makes it possible for groups of houses, or of streets, to become recognised as possessing a special character of their own; those who iive in these houses find difficulty in obtaining accommodation elsewhere, and this fact in itself tends to the inflation of rents of rooms in the groups of houses possessing the special character. 13 I was told over and over again of the difficulty experienced by persons who had lived in certain localities in Kensington in escaping from them—the descent to such places is easy, to return is quite another matter. The victims themselves fully recognise their helplessness, and they are looked upon by others, a little more fortunate, with pity not unmingled with self-congratulation. Thus, on inquiring as to the rent paid for some tenements, I must have shown some surprise at the lowness of the figure quoted, for the tenant went on to add " we are not an Avernus." Again a woman who was paying 5s. 3d. for a single " furnished " room, in which she and her family were living under conditions of overcrowding, told me she would, but for the fact that she was always met with a refusal when she stated where she came from, have been able to find far better accommodation at a more reasonable rent. She had recently almost concluded an arrangement to take four rooms for 9s. but was met with the old difficulty. In this case as in many others the applicant was quite willing to pay a " deposit," so that her non-acceptability as a tenant was not based upon fear of irregularity in payment of the rent. The objection entertained by the owner of the four rooms was no doubt based upon fear of incurring risk, by accepting such a person as a tenant, of possible damage to his property. As corroborative evidence of the fact that owners have very prominently in mind the possible damage which tenants may do to property, it may be noted that it is the experience of those who have charge in North-West Kensington both of common lodging-houses and of tenement houses, that if any regard is to be paid at all to the condition of cleanliness and repair of a house, there must be some power of control over the occupants. In the common lodging-house the Council's inspector will, it is known, call attention to anything that is amiss, hence a reasonable standard must be maintained, and for his own protection the keeper employs a resident deputy who has access at all times to all parts of the house. In many of the tenement houses on the other hand, inasmuch as the visits of the inspector have been hitherto few and far between, the conditions have been allowed to deteriorate, and to spend money in improving them is from the keeper's point of view to waste money, unless at the same time he takes steps to prevent injury being done to his property. Several keepers of " furnished " rooms complained to me of the want of power of control over lodgers. If any change at all is to be effected in these " furnished " rooms the keeper finds it necessary as a rule to pay someone to reside on the premises and thus safeguard his interests, in other words, he must entirely abandon the old system of absolute neglect and substitute for it one of careful supervision. In fact there is no half-way house; either a reasonable standard of accommodation must be maintained or the conditions be allowed to degenerate to the extent permitted in many parts of Kensington at the present time. It should be noted that common lodging-house prices have shown a tendency to rise in North-West Kensington during recent years. At one time the usual price was 4d. a night, Sunday night being a free night for weekly lodgers. Two or three years ago the free night system was abolished, and again, recently, the price in some of the houses has been raised to 5d. The ordinary price for a " furnished " room is 4s. Gd. for a back room, and 5s. to 6s. for a front room. Thus a man and woman without children can live more economically in a lodging house (assuming that they are not allowed to take lodgers in a furnished room), while a family, particularly when there are several children and no questions are asked about overcrowding, can manage better in a " furnished" room. To obtain additional cubic space means no doubt in many instances the payment of additional rent. In some cases the tenant may find this impracticable ; in North-West Kensington, however, there seems to be a general impression that such cases are few in number. It is said that the chief effect of the abolition of the free night in common lodging-houses, entailing as it did the payment by each lodger of an additional 4d., was a marked diminution in the number of cases of drunkenness at the end of the week. The inhabitants of the " special area " support between them ten public houses in, or in close proximity to, the area. In other words, there is one public house to every 25 dwelling houses. It is clear, therefore, that even on the most modest assumption as to the profits made at these public houses, the average expenditure of the individual upon drink must be large in proportion to his expenditure, say, upon house-room. It cannot be contended therefore that the inhabitants of the " special area," taking them as a whole, are without the means of effecting economies which would enable them to pay, if necessary, for additional cubic space. Overcrowding.—The number of rooms in which overcrowding was admitted to exist in Kensington, attained, as has been seen, a total of 61 in 444 houses visited. In Kensington, as in St. Pancras last year, particulars were ascertained as to whether the overcrowding arose from misuse of space or from insufficiency of space, the former term being applied to those instances in which the existing sleeping arrangements led to overcrowding, although by modification of these arrangements and altered use of the rooms of the particular tenement in question, such overcrowding could be done away with; the latter term being used to denote instances in which by no possible modification of the manner of using the rooms of the tenement could the number of cubic feet ■per person be made to fall within the assigned limits. per person be made to fall within the assigned limits. T.he results obtained 111 Kensington per 100 overcrowded tenements are very similar to those in St. Pancras, as will be seen from the following statement— Total houses visited. Total cases of overcrowding. Cases in which overcrowding resulted from misuoe of space. Cases in which overcrowding resulted from insufficiency of space. Families occupying Families occupying 1 room. 2 rooms. 3 rooms. 4 or more looms. 1 room. 2 rooms. 3 rooms. 4 or more rooms. St. Pancras 567 ] 79* 55 7 5 100 5 2 Kensington 444 61 — 19 6 1 32 3 — — Per 100 overcrowded tenements in St. Pancras — 32 4 3 57 3 i Per 100 overcrowded tenements in Kensington 32 10 2 52 4 * These 179 cases affected only 174 families. a« iu live instances two rooms occupied by a family were found to be overcrowded. 14 It thus appears that in Kensington, as had already been seen to be the case in St. Pancras, about one-third of the overcrowding admitted by tenants to exist arose merely from misuse of space, and therefore permitted of being abated by modification of sleeping arrangements without involving the displacement of a single family. Again, overcrowding from misuse of space was found, as in St. Pancras, to be uncommon in three and four room tenements. Further the experience already gained in St. Pancras to the effect that "as regards overcrowding from insufficiency of space the three and four room tenements may be left almost entirely out of the question," was strikingly confirmed in Kensington. Indeed, in the latter parish, in no instance was a tenement, consisting of more than two rooms, found to be overcrowded from actual insufficiency of space. These considerations may well be borne in mind in attempting to gauge the magnitude of the task to be undertaken in attempting to deal with overcrowding in particular districts. In discussing this matter in its relation to St. Pancras last year I was led to the conclusion that there was a tendency to exaggerate the difficulties of this question, and having regard to certain considerations, which were set out in detail in my report on St. Pancras, I estimated that "to entirely abolish overcrowding in St. Pancras would involve in reality a less displacement of population than was for instance entailed by the carrying out of the scheme undertaken by the Council at Boundary-street, Bethnal-green." A study of the Kensington figures, and application to them of a similar line of argument, leads to the conclusion that, in Kensington, the number of those for whom other accommodation would be needed (were overcrowding entirely done away with) would not exceed some two or three thousand persons. In all that has been so far said concerning overcrowding the question has been merely as to tenements admittedly overcrowded. An element of uncertainty must, however, always exist as to the extent to which reliance can be placed upon the statements made by tenants. In those parts of London in which little or no attention has been given to this question of overcrowding the information obtained is probably correct in the large majority of instances. In localities, however, in which inquiries have been made by officers of the sanitary authority, and in which notices to abate overcrowding have been served (more particularly if legal proceedings to secure penalties for infringement of by-laws regulating the provision of cubic space have been instituted), there is no doubt a tendency for the information obtained in the ordinary course of inquiry to err on the side of understating the actual amount of overcrowding existing. In Kensington, during the latter part of 1898 and the early part of 1899, precedent to the commencement of my inquiry, occasional night visits had been made by the vestry's inspector in the "special area," and in a tew instances proceedings against keepers of houses let out in furnished rooms, and against occupiers of such rooms, had been instituted, and fines had been inflicted. The moral effect of these proceedings was very apparent at the time of my enquiry, and it is highly probable that the statements made to me, as to the extent of occupation of rooms in this part of Kensington, coming as they did, for the most part, from persons who were keenly alive to the possible consequences of admitting the existence of overcrowding, were on the whole less worthy of credence than statements made in other districts, in some of which the tenants had never been questioned before on the subject of overcrowding. The alertness with regard to this question manifested in North-West Kensington was not a little remarkable. Occupiers of tenements knew "all about the cubic feet," and were concerned in some cases, perhaps for the first time, as to providing themselves and their children with breathing space. Again, keepers of houses let in furnished rooms were taking the necessary steps to enable them to fall into line with by-law requirements. There was abundant evidence that numbers of persons who had regarded the requirement of the law with indifference for years were making arrangements necessary to ensure their not been fined by the magistrates, now that there was the suggestion of an intention on the part of the vestry to carry the law into effect. It was particularly noteworthy that the difficulties attending these arrangements were for the most part not very great, and were insignificant in comparison with the magnitude of the improvement brought about. While the overcrowding prosecutions of the Kensington Vestry had produced a noticeable effect in the north-western district, particularly in the streets in which night visits had been made, it is not likely that any comparable effect had been produced on the attitude of persons towards the overcrowding question in the other parts of the parish, and the particulars ascertained may, I think, be taken as being correct for these other parts of Kensington, although probably they are distinctly understated as regards the north-west district itself. The results of the occasional night inspections made in the "special area" by inspector Steward, between November, 1898, and April, 1899, are given by Dr. Dudfield in his monthly reports, Nos. XI. and XIII. of 1898, and Nos. II. and IV. of 1899. Several cases of serious overcrowding were discovered, proceedings were successfully instituted and fines were imposed. Furthermore, a handbill was prepared for circulation in the district, setting out the particulars concerning these proceedings. Dr. Dudfield also drew attention (13th monthly report, 1898, p. 183) to the fact that a more severe penalty than the mere infliction of a direct money fine was held in reserve, inasmuch as under sec. 7 of the Public Health London Act, 1891, a petty sessional court was empowered to close the house on the application of the sanitary authority, in the event of two convictions for overcrowding within a period of three months being obtained.* The by-laws as to houses let in lodgings in force in Kensington contain a provision to the effect that "the keeper of a registered house and any lodger therein shall not suffer more than two persons of different sex, if above the age of 12 years, to occupy the same sleeping room." The most striking outcome of the night inspections made in Kensington was the evidence brought to light as to the occupation of rooms in contravention of this by-law. In a four-roomed house in the "special area" *Dr, Dudfield writes in his annual report for 1898—"A case did subsequently arise, and the application to close the house was duly made, but the magistrates, who imposed substantial tines on the offenders, declined to make an order to close the house, influenced, apparently, by their conception of the inconvenience it might cause to the occupants of other rooms." 15 three such cases of indecent occupation of rooms were found on the 10th April, 1899, and although the keeper and occupier were convicted and fined, the "ground floor west side room" was still found to be overcrowded and indecently occupied on the 24th April. These cases are referred to by Dr. Dudfield (4th monthly report, 1899), and are deserving of study as evidence of the need of a by-law regulating this matter, and of its enforcement by the sanitary authority. Such enforcement involves it will be seen, of necessity, visits of inspection at unusual hours and in some cases repeated resort to proceedings before a magistrate. Underground rooms.—As regards the enforcement of section 96 of the Public Health London Act, 1891, dealing with the separate use of underground rooms as dwellings, Kensington compares very favourably with St. Pancras, a district in which I made a large number of inspections last year. In St. Pancras I found the section only exceptionally enforced; in Kensington, when an inspector finds that an underground room is illegally occupied, steps are taken to secure compliance with the law. In a few instances, notably at the northern end of Portobello-road, I found underground rooms illegally occupied, and in Sirdar-road I found basement rooms separately occupied which were so damp as to render them unfit for human habitation. In other streets in the "special area" the separate occupation of a number of basement rooms had been recently discontinued at the instance of the Vestry. Workshops.—In October, 1893, a new departure was made by the Kensington Vestry, inasmuch as it was decided to undertake the systematic inspection of workshops, work places and laundries in which women were etnplovod. From time to time, says Dr. Dudfield, complaints had been received from H.M. superintending inspector, such as the following—"Found 18 women in two rooms on ground floor, estimated cubic space 2,000 feet" (or 111 feet per person). "Found 25 women in first floor, estimated cubic space 3,040 feet" (or 122 feet per person). "Found 10 women in one room, estimated cubic space 1,440 feet" (or 144 feet per person). Again, several dressmaking shops in South Kensington were inspected in 1893 by one of the Vestry's inspectors, who reported that "these establishments were so numerous that it would take up much of his time to keep them under such supervision as the Acts require." Dr. Dudfield, with a view to the proper carrying out of the Vestry's statutory obligations, and having regard to the nature of the work to be undertaken, suggested the desirability of employing women inspectors, and upon the sanitary committee's recommendation it was almost unanimously agreed to adopt this course. The appointments were made for six months, at the end of which time a committee recommended the renewal of the appointment of the inspectors during the pleasure of the Vestry, and added that the "discharge of the duties devolving upon them would be materially facilitated were the inspectors vested with the powers which attach to a sanitary inspector." This recommendation was, however, upon further consideration modified, the committee suggesting simply that the appointments " be continued for a further period of one year." * In 1895, one of the inspectors was reappointed, with the status of sanitary inspector, but the other appointment was allowed to lapse. "Unfortunately," says Dr. Dudfield, "the notion got abroad that one inspector could do the work of the entire parish." The sanitary committee had recommended the reappointment, but the Vestry struck out the paragraph in the committees report.j Since that time there has been only one inspector of workshops who, writes Dr. Dudfield, " does her best to carry out the work for the entire parish." This inspector has the status of a sanitary inspector. From the report of the present inspector of workshops, Miss de Chaumont, for the year 1898, the following table showing the number and distribution of the workshops, known to the sanitary authority, in which women are employed, is taken— Workshops; &c. North Kensington. South Kensington. Total for whole parish. Dressmakers. Laundries. Miscellaneous. Total. Dressmakers. Laundries. Miscellaneous. Total. Number on register 113 211 27 351 267 23 31 321 672 Number of rooms therein 132 475 36 643 488 43 34 565 1208 It will be seen that laundries constitute the large majority of the work places of North Kensington, and dressmakers workshops are an even more conspicuous feature in South Kensington. Anyone who visits a number of workshops in which women are employed in Kensington cannot fail to be impressed with the large amount of benefit which has accrued from the work of the inspectors during the past six years. The conditions under which women work have manifestly undergone material improvement, and in particular the attention which has been called to the question of overcrowding has resulted in a ready compliance with the statutory requirement on the part of the majority of owners of workshops. There are, however, it is clear, a minority of owners who prefer running * The special reasons which had led the committee to advocate that the inspectors of workshops should be given the status of sanitary inspectors arc set out in Dr. Dudfield's annual report for 1893, p, 161. † Monthly report XI., 1896, p. 127. It may be noted that in 1894, and again in 1895, one of the Vestry's lady inspectors was selected by the Home Secretary for appointment as factory inspector. The lady whose services the Vestry dispensed with in 1895, was soon afterwards selected by the Government of New South Wales for appointment as factory inspector. 16 the risk of detection to incurring the expense of providing adequate accommodation. I came across several instances of the kind myself, and, having regard to the number of premises to be visited and the extent of ground to be covered, one inspector cannot cope with this difficulty. The Vestry, in rejecting in 1895 the recommendation of its committee and the advice of its medical officer of health, practically made it worth the while of unscrupulous owners of workshops to incur the risk of defying the law. The need of increased supervision for adequate control of cleansing operations, and of other conditions dealt with in the Public Health Act and Factory and Workshops Act is, moreover, apparent. Again it may be pointed out that it is desirable that use should be made in Kensington of the lists which employers are required to keep of "outworkers," with a view to the inspection of the places in which they work. With an additional lady inspector it might be practicable to make a commencement by instituting periodical visits to places of business with a view to obtaining these particulars as to "out-workers." The workshops, &c., where men only are employed have not hitherto been systematically dealt with in Kensington. Dr. Dudfield writes,* "It is time that these establishments should be taken in hand, but it cannot be done in any effective way with the present limited and reduced staff of sanitary inspectors, without letting other and more immediately pressing work fall into arrear." He adds, "we do not know at present the locality of many of the workshops." A paragraph to a like effect appeared in Dr. Dudfield's subsequents reports for 1897 and 1898. Slaughterhouses, cowsheds and offensive trades—There are 13 licensed slaughterhouses, 4 licensed cowhouse premises, and one set of premises upon which the business of a fat extractor is carried on, in Kensington. I visited the majority of these, and found the by-laws generally speaking complied with. Some of the premises are in undesirably close proximity to dwelling houses. Complaint has been made, both to the Council and the Vestry, from time to time, particularly in hot weather, concerning the premises in Tobin-street, Notting Dale, upon which the business of a fat extractor is carried on. In May, 1898, complaint was made to the Vestry, in accordance with the terms of section 21 of the Public Health (London) Act, 1891, and the Vestry communicated with the Council on the subject. The Council subsequently instituted proceedings which were, after a long hearing, adjourned by the magistrate sine die. + Improvements have since been carried into effect upon the premises, but at the time of my inspection there was still cause for complaint. Further improvements are being carried out, and it remains to be seen what effect these alterations will have. The locality is a very unsuitable one for the conduct of a business of this kind. Common lodging-houses.—There are 18 establishments, including 32 houses, upon the Council's register of common lodging-houses; of these, 16 establishments are within or in the near neighbourhood of the "special area." A number of particulars concerning these houses have already been given, and it has been seen how favourably they compare with many of the tenement houses in their neighbourhood, so far as cleanliness and general condition of maintenance are concerned. In one respect, however, the common lodging-houses are less favourably circumstanced than the tenement houses. Many of the former were approved and their rooms apportioned for lodgers a number of years ago, and in such houses the standard applied, in apportioning sleeping rooms, seems to have fallen somewhat short of 300 cubic feet. At the present time, as the result of a survey which has been made by Mr. Marks, the Council's inspector, it transpires that out of a total of 219 rooms used as dormitories, in common lodging-houses in Kensington, no fewer than 120 contain more beds than would be allowed were the 300 cubic feet standard applied. In 109 of these overcrowded rooms there is one bed in excess of the number which would be allowed in a tenement house; in 7 there are two beds; and in 4 three beds in excess of this number. It is very desirable in the interests of the health of the occupants of the houses that this overcrowding should not continue to exist, and that further powers should be given for this purpose. Bakehouses.—The bakehouses in Kensington are 134 in number. They are regularly inspected, and in those which I visited I found the special provisions relating to bakehouses were carefully observed. Insanitary areas.—Kensington is fortunate in not possessing any considerable area in which there is conspicuous "bad arrangement" of streets and houses, such as has been dealt with in the past by improvement schemes under the various Acts consolidated in the Housing of the Working Classes Act, 1890. With the exception of the "James-street area," no "improvement scheme," says Dr. Dudfield, "has been initiated in this parish." Concerning this "James-street area" a scheme was prepared, to which the Council intimated that they should not be called on to contribute. After the usual inquiry by an inspector of the Local Government Board the Vestry obtained the necessary powers, and the property is now almost completely demolished. There are a few groups of cottages still standing in the potteries district, the condition and bad arrangement of which suggest the desirability of obtaining closing orders; such are the seven cottages on the south side of " Thresher's-cottages," and the cottages in Joliff'e's-yard, Tobin-street. Again, the cottages known as Cousin's-cottages, Silver-street, some cottages in Lonsdale-mews, and some in William's-place, Earl'a-court-road, may be specially referred to in this connection. Refuse removal.—The removal of house refuse was, as has been seen (Table p. 10), much better accomplished than I found it to be in Lambeth and St. Pancras when I made similar inquiries in those parishes, but not so well executed as it was in Whitechapel and Mile End Old Town in 1894. It was noticeable that certain parts of the north-eastern district were less efficiently scavenged than the rest of the parish. A piece of work which has been exceedingly well done in Kensington is that of carrying into effect the Council's by-law dealing with manure receptacles. Already, in 1890, in presenting a "return showing the names of the several mews in the parish, and the number and kind of receptacles used for the storage of stable manure/' Dr. Dudfield had pointed out "the propriety of immediate measures being taken for the abolition of sunken dung pits." In a parish like Kensington, with its miles of mews, the importance of reducing to a minimum the nuisance caused by storage of * Annual report for 1896. † See Dr. Dudfield's annual report for 1898, p. 95. 17 manure can scarcely be overrated.* The substitution for the brick receptacle of the iron cage, has resulted in a large measure of improvement being obtained, and the sunken dung pit (which was a special offender) has been abolished in all instances, save those in which this was rendered impossible owing to the fact that the entire frontage of the stable premises was occupied bv doors. Dr. Dudfield gives in his annual report for 1898, the following statement, showing the work done in giving effect to the Council's by-law— North Kensington. South Kensington. Total. Iron cages erected 564 999 1,563 Brick receptacles abolished 171 554 725 Brick receptacles constructed or reconstructed 281 45 326 Sunken pits improved, allowed to remain 36 38 74 Sunken pits abolished 132 434 566 Flooding of basements.—Dr. Dudfield, in his annual report for 1898, writes as follows—"In times of heavy rain the Counter's-creek main sewer has on many occasions proved unequal to the task of carrying off the storm water, thus leading to flooding of the basements of many houses with more or less diluted sewage. A terrible experience of this sort befell the occupants of numerous houses in this parish, 29th October, when 300 basements are known to have been flooded, including 56, 40, 30 and 167, in the central, the north-west, the north and the north-east sanitary districts respectively." Dr. Dudfield adds, "The Main Drainage Committee of the County Council was approached by a deputation from your Vestry, the outcome being that the Council decided, in December, 1895, to proceed with the erection of a new pumping-station at Lot's-road, Chelsea, at a cost of £60,000, and to apply to the Secretary of State for consent to the compulsory acquisition of the land required for the purpose. It is devoutly to be desired that this measure, when completed—it had not been begun at the end of 1898—may suffice to rid us of the nuisance, which, in the nature of things—owing to the increase in the number of inhabited houses draining into the local sewers—would have become worse but for palliative measures adopted by the local authorities in the reconstruction, deepening and enlargement of the said sewers." During the past summer, on two occasions, serious flooding of basements in a low-lying portion of the north-east sanitary district occurred. In a number of basement rooms, on the former occasion, particularly in St. George's-road, St. Mark's-road and Talbot-grove, water stood for a time at a depth of several inches above the floor level, and on its retreat left behind it a deposit of mud, which gave rise to considerable nuisance. Disinfection, &c.—The disinfection of clothing and bedding is carried out on behalf of the Kensington Vestry by a firm of contractors at Willesden. For some years past the medical officer of health has urged the desirability of erecting a disinfecting station, and providing a shelter for persons displaced from their homes during the progress of the work of disinfection. This subject was reported on by a committee of the Vestry in July, 1896. The committee found that the cost of disinfecting and cleansing infected articles in Kensington in the three years 1893-95 had been £2,988, or an average of about £1,000 a year (irrespective of the wages of disinfecting officers), while in 1896 £1,361 was paid to the contractor. The committee also reported on the arrangements in force in Islington, where the vestry had erected a station the total cost of which "without charge for land, amounted to about £4,500," while, it was added, the annual expenditure "amounts to £350 per annum." Dr. Dudfield states that he obtained information to the effect that "a station and a shelter could be erected for a less amount than had been expended at Islington, and that some hundreds of pounds per annum might be saved on the present cost of disinfection." The committee, however, reported against any change being made in existing arrangements. Section 60 sub-section 4, of the Public Health (London) Act, 1891, imposes on the vestry the duty of providing temporary shelter or house accommodation for persons "compelled to leave their dwellings for the purpose of enabling such dwellings to be disinfected by the sanitary authority." The Kensington Vestry have not erected a shelter. In his annual report for 1895 Dr. Dudfield (p. 120) drew special attention to reports made by the then superintendent of the disinfecting arrangements as to "the frequency with which he had to turn people into the streets to enable him to disinfect their rooms." Dr. Dudfield pointed out that the inspectors "find it difficult in the circumstances to obtain ordinary lodgings for the people," and adds that in some instances the latter are given " permission to open the door of their room late at night," the result being that the process of disinfection is only in operation for "a few hours, instead of the 24 usually deemed requisite." It appears moreover that the inspector stated that "in many cases the doors have been burst open as soon as he had left the premises," with the result that practically no disinfection had taken place. As Dr. Dudfield observes, "the best solution to the existing difficulty would be found in compliance with the provisions of the law—in the interests of public health and humanity alike."† * In the return above referred to the names of 163 mews are specified. † An instance of the need of a shelter was furnished in the early part of 1898 by the facts relative to an outbreak of typhus fever which occurred at Western-dwellings, North Kensington. The particulars of the outbreak are given by Dr. Dudfield in his third monthly report for 1898. A woman who lived in St. George-theMartyr, South wark, and who went to look after some children belonging to one of the Kensington families attacked, contracted the disease, which was recognised on her return to her house. Dr. Dudfield, in commenting on the circumstances, says, the medical officer of health for St. George's, Southwark, informs me that the four families living in the woman's house were the first occupants of the shelter, which the (St. George's) Vestry have provided under the provisions of section 60 (4) of the Public Health (London; Act, 1891." He adds, "the woman probably would have escaped, had it been possible to place her in a shelter whilst the rooms of the two flats at Western-dwellings were being disinfected." 18 Sanitary administration. On a review of the conditions, found as the result of inspection, it is obvious that while Kensington compares favourably with London districts generally in certain particulars, it compares unfavourably in others. The former class of particulars includes, for the most part, matters which have engaged the attention of London Sanitary authorities for a considerable number of years, and which once taken up and dealt with, to a greater or less extent leave a lasting impress upon the sanitary condition of a district, constituting a permanent indication of good work done. The most striking of the particulars included in the latter class are those conditions of dirt and dilapidation,, which, even if once remedied, are so apt to recur in the absence of an effective system of supervision by the sanitary authority. There are also other indications which point to the conclusion that for a long period of time Kensington had no reason to fear comparison with other London districts in regard to its sanitary administration. In "A Retrospect—1871-89," Dr. Dudfield has referred to some of the improvements effected in these years. Thus already in 1889 he was able to write " A system of voluntary notification of infectious disease has been introduced. Baths and washhouses have been erected, a public mortuary and a coroner's court have been provided. Efforts have been made to enlist the co-operation of medical men and ratepayers generally, of public bodies, and of all other available agencies, in the disclosure of nuisances and infectious diseases, and generally in the work of sanitary administration. Whatever good has been done became possible only through the confidence and the full liberty of action bestowed upon me by the Vestry." It may be pointed out, moreover, that from an early period attention was specially directed in Kensington to the control of the use of slaughter-houses and cowsheds, to the regulation of bakehouses, to the methods to be adopted in dealing with stable refuse and in the conveyance through the streets of offensive substances, to the need of enforcing regulations dealing with houses let in lodgings and to many other matters of importance in connection with sanitary administration. Again, to Kensington belongs the credit of being the first London authority to take up the question of the inspection by women of workplaces in which women are employed. In recent years, however, an unmistakeable reaction in regard to sanitary administration has taken place. For example, the excellence of the work which was being carried out by the health department of the Vestry, in connection with structural alterations of drainage, up to four or five years ago is sufficiently evident. It is a rare occurrence in Kensington to find defective traps, sink wastes, etc., and in some parts of the parish it is quite exceptional to note that the drain of a house is not ventilated and trapped from the sewer. Towards the close of 1894, however, "objections were raised by certain members of the committee to the issue of reconstruction notices, and these objections having been allowed to prevail thenceforth notices were issued to "repair and make sound" defective drains. Dr. Dudfield writes: "The service of notices to repair drains that were obviously incapable of being made sound—excepting by taking up and relaying the pipes— caused general inconvenience, and led to not a little unpleasantness," and, again, he refers to cases in which "the drain was repaired and made sound (in other words patched up) under the supervision of the sanitary inspector, sometimes at a cost little less than would have been entailed by reconstruction." Again, in his annual report for 1895, Dr. Dudfield wrote, "the work of sanitation was hindered throughout the year owing to differences of opinion which arose in the Sanitary Committee as to your Vestry's powers to require the reconstruction of defective drains, and the trapping of old drains not intercepted from the sewer." This work had been done for years under notices, and no difficulty had been experienced in giving effect to the notices. As regards trapping, for ten years it had been the practice in Kensington for the inspectors when inspecting dwellinghouses, under the Vestry's instructions, "to test the drain with water or smoke and to see that it was trapped from the sewer. In several thousands of cases this had been done and without appreciable difficulty." Dr. Dudfield goes on to state that at the beginning of 1895 objections were raised to regarding an untrapped drain as "a drain in such a state as to be a nuisance or injurious or dangerous to health." "These objections were allowed to prevail."* Finally, in July, 1896, the sanitary inspector ceased to exercise supervision over works of underground drainage, inasmuch as it was resolved by the Vestry that " all works of repair or alteration to the underground drains of any premises be supervised by the surveyor's department, provided that this instruction shall not apply to such works of repairs or alteration as the fixing of gullies or drain inlets apart from other underground work." Again, a great deal has been done in the past in Kensington in connection with houses let in lodgings. A large number of houses were registered, and at the cost of much labour particulars concerning these houses were ascertained. Few other London districts compare with Kensington in respect to the number of such houses registered. Unfortunately, however, insufficiency * In the same annual report—that of 1895, the following passage appears— "The question of the powers of the Sanitary Committee in these matters was, at the committee's request, submitted to counsel, who, after long delay, submitted an elaborate "opinion" on a somewhat complicated "case." Amongst other things, counsel stated that "The Public Health Act applies only when a drain is a nuisance" [or dangerous] "or injurious to health": adding that "it will be a question of fact in every case, whether, under the circumstances, a drain is a nuisance" &c. Counsel moreover, whilst holding that "a drain which is not trapped or ventilated, may, undoubtedly, be within the Act." was of opinion that "the nuisance or danger [or injury] to health must be proved as a fact." I may mention that the words in brackets, not being in the original opinion, were added by counsel upon my calling attention to their omission in a letter I addressed (November 1st) to the Law and Parliamentary Committee, wherein I expressed the view that " it is only necessary to show, as a matter of expert opinion, that the defect" (e.g. absence of a trap) "involves danger to health without the necessity of proving injury to health arising therefrom." Counsel moreover, having received a copy of this communication, stated that he "entirely agreed" with me; it was "sufficient if there is danger, without injury, to health." It "had not occurred" to him (he had not been told) "that anything turned on the distinction "(between the words "dangerous" or "injurious" ), though, from my point of view, it is vital to the point at issue." 19 of inspection, owing to insufficiency of the number of inspectors, has been allowed to prevent the proper carrying out of the task of exercising supervision over these houses. Indeed, of late years this question of the need of strengthening the staff of sanitary inspectors has become one of the first importance in connection with Kensington sanitary administration. The sanitary staff of the Vestry prior to 1866 included only two inspectors; in that year a third officer was appointed and the parish was divided into three sanitary districts—north, central and south. In 1877 a fourth inspector was appointed and four sanitary inspectors' districts were constituted. In 1886 regulations under the Sanitary Act of 1866 came into force in Kensington and in 1889 about 1,800 houses had been placed upon the register. In December, 1889, the medical officer of health reported that there was " necessity for an increase in the staff of sanitary inspectors," and, after consideration of the matter, a committee of the Vestry recommended the appointment of two additional sanitary inspectors. This recommendation was referred back by the Vestry, and after further consideration it was decided to still retain the four sanitary inspectors' districts, but to relieve the sanitary inspectors of some of the multifarious duties they had hitherto been called on to perform by the appointment of two "street inspectors." Dr. Dudfield, in commenting upon this decision, observed that any course which released the inspectors "from the performance of certain duties which do not come within the definition of 'sanitary work,' would be equivalent to an increase of the powers of the department for the discharge of the duties proper to the office of sanitary inspector. But whether the assistance proposed to be given will suffice, time alone can determine." It did not suffice, and in reporting in December, 1891, Dr. Dudfield, after referring to the new duties devolving on the Vestry under the Public Health (London) Act, 1891, and to the need of carrying out systematic inspection in the district, made the significant statement, " It is manifestly desirable, moreover, that we should resume the important work of registering, and should effectively supervise, houses let in lodgings. These duties cannot be executed in any effective way with the present staff, which is really inadequate for current duties under existing laws." He then continues as follows, "The inspectors are but four in number, or about a third of the number employed in some provincial towns with a smaller population and a comparatively insignificant rateable value. I take no account of the street inspectors supposed to act as "assistant inspectors of nuisances." They have been far too busy in attending to their proper duties to be able to assist the sanitary inspectors in that capacity, and I should be glad to see them transferred entirely to the departments of the vestry clerk and the surveyor. Having regard to all the facts of the case then I cannot conscientiously recommend a smaller addition to the staff than four inspectors and one efficient clerk." A special sub-committee was appointed to consider the medical officer of health's recommendations, and advised that four inspectors and a fourth-class clerk should be appointed. Dr. Dudfield was asked to prepare a "scheme" for carrying out the work of the department with the proposed increased staff, and he recommended placing two inspectors in the south district (south of Kensington-road), four inspectors in the north district (i.e., north of Uxbridge-road), and one inspector in the central district; and further recommended that an inspector should be appointed to exercise general superintendence over the (outdoor) work of the other inspectors. The Vestry, however, upon the recommendation of the sanitary committee decided in March, 1892, to appoint only two additional inspectors (instead of four), thus raising the number of the staff to six. In 1893 the result of the policy of cutting down the recommendations of the medical officer of health, which had now been adopted for more than three years, was made manifest so far as an important branch of the work of the public health department of the Vestry was concerned. The adequate supervision of houses let in lodgings had been rendered practically impossible since 1889, and the group of streets in which such supervision was specially needed had deteriorated to such an extent as to merit the title which was bestowed upon it by a writer in the Daily News in January, 1893, of "A West-end Avernus." Public attention having been called to the locality in question, the Vestry referred the subject to its sanitary committee. Dr. Dudfield's opinion on the matter, given in his second monthly report for 1893, is that "the case, therefore, is one to be met by more frequent sanitary inspection than is possible at present." The committee in their report (March, 1893) concluded that "what appears to be most needed in the district inspected by the committee is frequent house-to-house inspection," and they recommended the appointment of a seventh inspector. Accordingly, from 1893 to the latter part of 1895, there were four inspectors in North, one in Central and two in South Kensington. Further, as has already been mentioned in discussing workshops, two women inspectors were appointed in 1893. In July, 1895, however, one of these appointments was, unhappily, allowed to lapse. In November, 1895, the senior sanitary inspector resigned, and the Vestry decided in February, 1896, not to fill up his appointment. Towards the close of 1894, as has been seen, question was raised as to requiring only that defective drains should be "repaired and made sound," instead of as heretofore, requiring them to be reconstructed. Again, in January, 1896, the sanitary committee of the Vestry decided to vary the instructions of the inspectors with regard to serving notices for the trapping of drains, acting "upon the view that they had no power to require an existing drain to be disconnected from the sewer unless nuisance is proved to exist."—(Annual Report for 1896, pages 116, 117.) During 1896 Dr. Dudfield writes—"Little work was done by the inspectors in these directions." Moreover, the Vestry decided in the course of this year that all works of repair or alteration to underground drains be supervised by the surveyor's department, thus formally relieving the sanitary inspectors of duties which they had practically ceased to perform. No increase of staff in the surveyor's department appears to have been made to carry out the new duties imposed upon that department. The staff having been reduced in the course of a few months from nine to seven inspectors, it was now obviously necessary for one woman inspector to attempt to do the work of two, and for some 20 re-arrangement of the districts of the sanitary inspectors to be made. It was decided to convert the seven existing districts into six, and to accomplish this, three of the inspectors' districts in North Kensington were to be converted into two.* Under this arrangement the north-west B division, which included within it the "special area," was considerably extended, and the enlarged area, known now as the north-west district, was allotted to a single inspector. In March, 1896, a special committee was appointed to consider the reports of the medical officer relating to this north-west B division, and to report "whether any steps can be taken by the Vestry, either singly or in conjunction with some other authority, to effect an improvement in the conditions at present prevailing in the district in question." The Committee made a number of valuable suggestions with regard to matters of detail, some of which have since been carried out.† With regard to the main problem they expressed the opinion that houses let out as "furnished apartments" should" be brought under control and registered as common lodging-houses." The duty of exercising supervision over these houses would then, of course, devolve upon the London County Council.‡ As regards "sanitary inspection" the Committee were of opinion "that the necessity of this can hardly be overstated," but they added, "this does not necessarily mean an increase to our permanent staff of sanitary inspectors." On receiving the report of the special committee, it was decided by the Vestry to alter existing arrangements so that the north-west B district (containing the "special area") should be reconstituted and allotted to one inspector. This restoration to the north-west B division of the measure of attention (save as regards enquiries as to infectious disease; see footnote to this paragraph), which had been previously devoted to it, was to be effected, not by increasing the staff of inspectors, but at the expense of the other parts of Kensington. The inspector in charge of the central district of Kensington was to cover a large additional area to the north of Notting-hill High-street and Holland-park-avenue, and what was then left of the original north-west A and north-east districts was to constitute a new north-east district under the charge of a single inspector.§ The proposals of the Vestry had been criticised adversely by both the Local Government Board and the London County Council. The Board had urged the Vestry to reconsider their proposal, pointing out that "the population of four out of the six proposed districts" (exceeding 30,000 in each district) "would be in excess of the average population of the districts of sanitary inspectors in the metropolis." The Council had asked in May, 1896, whether the Vestry could furnish for their information "any recent report of its medical officer on the subject of the adequacy of the Vestry's 6taff, and if not, whether they would instruct their medical officer to report on the question." The Vestry, in reply, referred to the fact that a special committee had been appointed in March, 1896, and on July 22nd the Vestry forwarded a copy of the report of this committee. The Public Health Committee of the Council thereupon asked, in July, 1896, that facilities might be afforded to one of their assistant medical officers in order that he might make inquiry as to the sufficiency of the Vestry's staff of sanitary inspectors. This inquiry did not, however, then take place, as, after further correspondence, it transpired in January, 1897, that the Local Government Board had assented to the reduction in the number of male inspectors from seven to six for a period of twelve months on trial, but desired to be informed at the end of that period as to how the arrangement worked. In February, 1898, the Board wrote requesting that the "special report" required by their letter of 28th January, 1897, might be forwarded. The Vestry, without consulting their medical officer, replied that the arrangement had proved satisfactory. In May the Board were asked to sanction the appointment of Mr. Pettit (who was still to continue to act as one of the Vestry's district inspectors) as chief sanitary inspector, and the Board, in replying, stated that they had "decided to hold an enquiry into the details of sanitaryadministration in the parish, but as, owing to the engagements of their staff, they could not hope that the enquiry would be held for some little time, they would not withhold their assent to the assignment of the additional duties to Mr. Pettit as an experiment." In May, 1899, I was instructed to make inquiry concerning the "special area," and in June I was instructed to continue my inspection throughout the rest of the parish. It remains to add, in regard to the history of events in connection with this matter, that in 1897 it was decided by a special committee of the Vestry that it was desirable to commemorate the Queen's Jubilee by "the promotion of a scheme, having for its object the amelioration of the condition of the inhabitants" of the special area. The Vestry, moreover, resolved in 1897 to request the County Council to acquire the houses in the special area, under Part III. of the Housing of the Working Classes Act, 1890, for utilisation as lodging-houses. || * "The rearrangement was effected by consolidating the north-east district and the two divisions (A and B) of the north-west district, so as to make two districts, since known as north-east and north-west."—(Annual Report, 1896, page 111.) † These suggestions are printed in extenso on pages 5 and 6 of the Special Committee's report, and are also referred to on pages 146 and 147 of Dr. Dudfield's Annual Report for 1896. An account of the improvements actually carried out is given on page 144 of the Annual Report for 1897. ‡ The Vestry asked the Council to define the meaning of the term common lodging-house. The Council's reply of October, 1896, is given in extenso by Dudfield on p. 143 of his annual report for 1896, and he adds the observation, " It is manifest that the houses in the Notting Dale special area cannot, under the provisions of the existing law, be dealt with as common lodging-houses." § The increase in the area of the central district was accompanied by a transference of duties in connection with enquiries into cases of infectious diseases all over the parish, from the inspector of that district, to the sanitary inspectors, each in their respective districts. This then was the scheme for obtaining an increased amount of sanitary inspection without "an increase to the permanent staff of sanitary inspectors." It may be noted moreover taat "in July the sanitary committee having ordered the issue of 220 notices" in respect of houses in Notting Dale, it was proposed to appoint two additional inspectors for one month, to assist in supervising the execution of the required works, but the proposal was negatived by the committee." (p 145 Annual Report for 1897.) || Dr. Dudfield had, in the first instance, proposed the "acquirement of a number of the houses to be utilised as lodging houses, so as to increase the body of respectacle inhabitants already located in the district." In his annual report for 1897, page 143, he writes—" The ultimate cost of such a scheme would have been small, as the houses pay their owners very well indeed." 21 In connection with the former object it was decided to provide "a creche and resting and warming rooms for the poor people," and a site for such buildings has since been acquired. With regard to the request made to the Council, the Housing of the Working Classes Committee replied stating, inter alia, that "so far from requiring the aid of the Council the Vestry possess ample powers under section 94 of the Public Health (London) Act, 1891, for dealing with the evils existing in connection with the houses in the area." Further communications were addressed to the Council on the subject, but the Council's committee declined to advise the Council to acquire the houses. Since the commencement of my enquiry an additional inspector has been appointed by the Vestry. This inspector will relieve Mr. Pettit, the chief inspector, of his duties as inspector of the southeastern district, and enable him to devote his time to the work which devolves upon a chief inspector. The opinion I have formed as the result of my enquiry is that, had the recommendations made from time to time since 1889 by Dr. Dudfield with regard to increasing the sanitary staff been acted upon, the West-end Avernus would never have attained the notoriety which it has done, and what is more important, the standard of fitness for occupation of many hundreds of working class dwellings in Kensington would have been improved to an extent that would have had material influence upon health conditions in the parish. Looking at the matter merely from the point of view of expense, it cannot be doubted, having regard to the evidence adduced as to sickness and to the remarkably high death rate in the "special area," and having also in view the fact that there are a number of streets in other parts of Kensington in which conditions obtain which are little better than those in the "special area," that the monetary cost to the parish resulting from allowing these conditions to remain, has been far larger than would have been incurred had the staff been increased in accordance with the medical officer of health's recommendations. As regards the suggestion which has been made that the houses let in furnished apartments in the special area should be dealt with as common lodging-houses, there is no doubt that so far as these particular houses are concerned great benefit would result from the adoption of such a course. This, however, would involve an alteration in the definition of a common lodging house and the alteration would affect the administration in relation to such houses in all parts of London. It is not obvious that Parliament would assent to this course in the absence of the special conditions of common lodging houses, the living in common by persons who are not members of the same family. But it should be borne in mind that the question is mainly one of sufficiency of inspection, and not one of statutory powers. The Council's inspector does his work under Acts of 1851 and 1853, but he visits the common lodging-houses four times a month. The Vestry's inspector does his work, so far as he has opportunity, under the Act of 1891 and the by-laws confirmed in 1886, but he finds it "impossible to make a single thorough inspection of each of these tenements" (those in houses let in lodgings) "in the course of a year."† The proposal to acquire the houses in the special area under Part III. of the Housing Act has been made. In favour of this proposal it has been urged that larger powers of control are necessary, but the question is, as I have said, one not so much of additional statutory powers as of the enforcement of existing powers. In connection with this matter it may be pointed out that the cost of acquiring the property compulsorily would of course be enhanced in proportion to the rentals obtained, indeed, it is a question for serious consideration whether the purchase of property of this kind by a public authority under part III. of the Housing Act, would not tend to encourage the growth in other parts of London of the very evils which it is desired to remedy in Kensington. There are at the present time, in Kensington, a chief and six district inspectors, and a lady inspector of workplaces at which women are employed. In addition to these officers there are others who do not belong to the health department, but who discharge functions which to some extent relieve the work of the sanitary inspectors. Thus there are two "street inspectors" whose main duty is to inspect mews with a view to seeing that they are properly scavenged; they also deal with obstructions in the streets and with disorderly houses, and they collect samples for analysis under the Food and Drugs Act. This last-named duty is in many London districts performed by the sanitary inspectors. Again, the work of supervising underground drainage construction is carried out by a chief inspector and three assistants, who belong not to the public health, but to the surveyor's department. The carrying out of the provisions of the Public Health Act relating to unsound food and to smoke nuisance devolves on the sanitary inspectors, who, however, under existing arrangements, are unable to devote sufficient attention to these matters. It appears desirable, in the first instance, to state to what extent the existing staff is undermanned, having regard only to the duties which now devolve upon the public health department. If workshops are to be separately dealt with, it is clear that two additional inspectors would be required; one to deal with workshops in which women are employed and the other with workshops in which men are employed. If such an arrangement were made a woman should be appointed for the former duty, and there would then be in Kensington two women and one man engaged in workshop inspection. While, however, there can be no question as to the urgent desirability of making the former appointment, it is open to question whether the duty of inspecting workshops in which men only are employed, should devolve upon an inspector specially appointed for the purpose, or whether it should be carried out by each individual district sanitary inspector, assuming, of course, that the fact of such added duty would be borne in mind in regulating the size of the several sanitary inspectors' districts. * The special committee of 1896 reported that the evils described as existing in Notting Dale are "spreading, and the character of several neighbouring streets is rapidly deteriorating. This opinion is in agreement with my own experience of the neighbourhood; moreover there are other groups of streets, particularly in the "northern sanitary district" of Kensington, in which conditions of a like character exist. † In his annual report for 1896, Dr. Dudfield contrasts the amount of attention bestowed during that year upon the houses in the "Special area." He says "Of the 275 houses, 23 are common lodging-houses under the administration of the County Council, each such house being inspected at least once a week; of the remaining 252 houses, 159 were inspected once, 46 twice, 18 thrice, 14 four times, 1 house five times, and 1 house six times. 22 Again, with regard to food inspection, a similar question to that just referred to arises. A special officer for the purpose of food inspection has not hitherto been appointed in Kensington. If suoh an appointment be not made the fact that an additional burden is thus thrown upon the district inspectors, each in his own district, requires to be remembered in connection with arriving at a decision with regard to the size of the several sanitary inspectors' districts. On the assumption that special officers are not appointed for the purpose of inspecting workshops in which men only are employed and for food inspection, I estimate that Kensington requires nine, district inspectors, four for that portion south of the Uxbridge-road and five for the portion to the north of that road. At the present time the first-named portion comprises two entire inspectors' districts and a considerable part of a third district, while the portion north of the Uxbridge-road comprises three inspectors' districts and also includes a piece of the inspector's district referred to above as the district a considerable part of which lies to the south of the TJxbridge-road. If special officers were appointed for dealing as aforesaid, with men's workplaces and with food, some reduction in the amount of work required to be performed by the district inspectors would result. With two such special officers, however, I do not think it would be desirable to reduce the number of district inspectors to less than eight. Thus, while the appointment in Kensington of special inspectors would, no doubt, be conducive to the better carrying out of the particular duties upon which they would be engaged, the work remaining to be done by the district inspectors would not necessarily permit of decreasing the number of districts pari passu with each special inspector appointed. On a general view of the matter it will be seen that I estimate that the work which now devolves upon the staff requires the services of four additional inspectors, three men and one woman (or if specialisation of work is attempted, of five additional inspectors, four men and a woman), and in making this estimate I am not taking into account the additional duties which will devolve upon the borough of Kensington in November, 1900, nor am I making any allowance for the further assistance which will be required in the event of the boundaries of Kensington being extended. But the question now arises whether it would not be well to reconsider the method of dealing with the supervision of works of underground drainage at present in force in Kensington. In 1891 the Yestry decided that the sanitary inspector should be responsible for the supervision of works under notice excepting in cases involving the entire or partial reconstruction of the house drain. In 1896 the Yestry directed that all works of repair or alteration to the underground drains be supervised by the surveyor's department. Up to the year 1896 the health department of the Kensington Vestry appears to have been concerned with the supervision of works of underground drainage (short of reconstruction of a large portion of a drain) in all nuisance cases, the surveyor's department being concerned with new drains and with voluntary constructions or reconstructions, that is to say, with work undertaken on the owner's initiative and apart from notices served by the Yestry for abatement of nuisance. In a few London districts all works of underground drainage are supervised by the sanitary inspectors, in the majority of districts works carried out in nuisance cases are so supervised. One is at once struck on making acquaintance with the nature of the work of the Kensington district inspector, with the disadvantages under which Kensington labours as compared with those other London districts in which use is made of the services of the sanitary inspector. In Kensington the sanitary inspector, as a result of whose reports the work is originated, by service of notices, is practically excluded from taking any action in regard to the premises on which such work is going on. Yet a sanitary inspector, by his training, is specially fitted for this work, and there is obvious advantage in his following each case of nuisance to the end, and seeing that the defects to which he has called attention are satisfactorily remedied. The Kensington Vestry under existing arrangements employs six qualified district sanitary inspectors trained to exercise supervision of the kind now in question, and passing, it may be, in the ordinary course of their employment the places in which the work is being carried out, and yet fails (speaking of the period since 1896) to avail itself of their services. In substitution, it employs two officers in the surveyor's department, a chief and an assistant inspector (who are paid salaries of £270 and £170 per annum), and two other assistants in the same department (who receive £97 10s. per annum, remuneration on a lower scale than that which a qualified inspector usually receives). If the supervision of underground drainage work were dealt with in Kensington as it usually is in other parts of London, the Vestry would be able to effect considerable economy in saving the time, and in making greater use of the capacities of its officers. It has already been estimated that a division into nine districts would be necessary, assuming that no supervision of drainage work were carried out by the sanitary inspectors. If the whole of the work of supervising drainage construction were undertaken by the health department, having regard to the saving effected in respect of distance traversed, an addition of only three inspectors, i.e., a division into twelve districts, would probably be found necessary. This is. of course, on the assumption that the amount of work to be done is not affected by the change.* If the health department's supervision were limited to drainage work in nuisance cases a smaller addition to the number of districts would suffice. Having regard to the fact that the salaries of the present inspectors of drains may be regarded as practically equivalent to the cost of four sanitary inspectors,† it is clear that in either event re-arrangement of duties between the two * An increased amount of work in connection with the drainage of existing houses is no doubt necessary but on the other hand it must be remembered that very few new houses are now being built in Kensington. † It may be pointed out that the cost to Kensington of the four inspectors of drains exceeds the cost to the parish of the eight existing sanitary inspectors, half of the salaries of the last named being paid by the London County Council. 23 departments would lead to some monetary saving, and the advantage which would result from the utilisation of available knowledge now not put to use is a still more important consideration. In the event of no comprehensive re-arrangement of duties with regard to drainage being put into execution, it should at any rate be arranged that when drains are opened up for the insertion of a trap, the sanitary inspector should visit to investigate the condition of the drain and see if more work is necessary, and also that when work is finished, he should ascertain if the nuisance he had reported had been abated and the works executed. I have made in the preceding paragraphs, certain suggestions with a view to indicating to what extent, in my opinion, the staff of inspectors in Kensington requires strengthening, and I may summarise them as follows: — In all cases it is understood that the chief inspector's and the lady inspector's services are retained, and that an additional lady inspector is appointed, thus making two inspectors employed for the inspection of workplaces in which women are employed. Under the first arrangement proposed, in addition to the three officers just referred to, there would be nine district sanitary inspectors. If it were desired to bring special knowledge to bear upon food inspection and the inspection of workshops where men only are employed, two special officers might, with undoubted advantage, so far as the particular work in question was concerned, be appointed, but in such an event the number of district inspectors should not be reduced by more than one, i.e., eight districts should be constituted. If, as an alternative to the arrangement or arrangements above referred to, the supervision of drainage work were added to the duties of the district sanitary inspectors, in place of nine sanitary districts a division into a greater number of sanitary districts would be found necessary—the size and hence the number of the districts being determined by the extent of re-arrangement of duties decided upon; if the entire work of supervising drainage construction were made to devolve upon the sanitary inspectors it would be necessary to divide Kensington up into twelve instead of nine sanitary districts. Under the first arrangement referred to above, the addition required to the existing staff would be three men and a woman, which I regard as the minimum increase which should be made. Under the alternative arrangement an increase (according to the re-distribution of duties made) of not more than three additional inspectors, i.e., a total maximum increase of six men and one woman would be necessary. Under this arrangement, however, against the increase in the staff of the health department would have to be set off the diminution in the amount of drainage work devolving upon the surveyor's department. I have not referred to the question of increased assistance in connection with the disinfecting station and the "shelter," which, as I have already intimated, should at once be erected in Kensington, inasmuch as such assistance does not involve any question as to the number of sanitary inspectors. W. H. Hamer, Assistant Medical Officer of Health. APPENDIX III. London County Council. SANITARY CONDITION OF CEMETERIES AND BURIAL GROUNDS. Report by the Medical Officer of Health presenting a report by Dr. C. W. F. Young, Assistant Medical Officer of Health, as to the condition of the Cemeteries and Burial Grounds chiefly used by the population of the County of London, as to whether further provision for burial is required, and whether further regulation is necessary in the interest of public health and decency. (Printed by order of the Public Health. Committee, 22nd June, 1899.) Public Health Department, 8, St. Martin's-place, W.C. (1.) With a view to obtaining information necessary for a report to the Council, Dr. Young has visited the burial grounds in use in London and the burial grounds situated beyond the limits of the county, but in which the London dead are largely buried. Letters of inquiry have, moreover, been addressed to cemetery companies and burial boards, and every effort made to ascertain the circumstances of all such burial grounds. These efforts have been in great part successful, and a large amount of information has been obtained which is incorporated in Dr. Young's report. (2.) It will be well to state briefly the difficulties which attend any effort to form an estimate of the duration of time in which the existing grounds will be available for burial. Apart from the fact that the use of the burial grounds visited by Dr. Young is not limited to the London population, further difficulty results from these burial grounds containing two classes of graves, the one private, the other common graves. Private graves may each receive only one, or more than one body, the fact whether a private grave is used for subsequent interments after the first burial depending on family circumstances, which must differ very greatly. Hence, there are rights of burial in numerous private graves which may or may not be exercised, and nothing but the lapse of time can determine whether these rights will be exercised. Again the number of bodies which are interred in common graves differs very much in the several burial grounds. There is no regulation which limits the depth of a grave, and the practice of the owners of burial grounds in this respect varies. In some of the cemeteries as many as 12 or 15 bodies are interred in the same grave one above the other; in other cemeteries only four or five bodies are thus interred. In the Woking Cemetery, with few exceptions, no unpurchased grave is used for the burial of members of more than one family. In the Jewish Burial Grounds not more than one body is interred in any grave. And again, the superficial area of a grave in the several burial grounds is not the same, and thus the number of graves per acre differs. Apart from these considerations, increase in the adoption of the practice of cremation may possibly affect the results. (3.) These circumstances make very hazardous any attempt to estimate the length of time during which the existing provision will suffice. The following statement may, however, be of interest in this connection. There are in the burial grounds, as a whole, about 4½ burials in common graves to every burial in a private grave, and if we assume that every common grave will receive on the average six bodies and every private grave three bodies, it follows that a burial ground will require four private graves to nine common graves. Now there are in the burial grounds included in Dr. Young's report about 1,300 acres of land purchased for burial purposes and not yet utilised, and it is possible to ascertain on such assumption how long this ground will be available for interment of the number of bodies supplied by the population of the administrative county of London and of Greater London with death-rates of 16, 18, and 20 per 1,000 living. Thus— (4.) Table showing the number of years for which 1,300 acres is sufficient provision assuming (a) 1,000 graves per acre, (b) 750 graves per acre, (c) 500 graves per acre, and death rates of (1) 16 per 1,000, (2) 18 per 1,000, and (3) 20 per 1,000 per annum, and assuming also that the population of the administrative county of London is uniformly increasing throughout the whole period at the same rate as between 1891 and 1896, and that of Greater London at the same rate as between 1881 and 1891— Assuming death rates of Administrative County of London. Greater London. (a) 1,000 graves per acre. (b) 750 graves per acre. (c) 500 graves per acre. (a) 1,000 graves per acre. (b) 750 graves per acre. (c) 500 graves per acre. years. years. years. years. years. years. (1) 16 per 1,000 65.4 52.4 37.6 43.2 34.9 25.4 (2) 18 „ 59.8 47.6 34.0 39.6 31.9 23.0 (3) 20 „ 55.1 43.7 31.0 36.7 29.4 21.1 [2334 2 (5.) In view of the fact that within Greater London are burial grounds not included among those containing the 1300 acres of ground referred to, the periods of time in the table headed Greater London are too small; while for the reason that this ground will doubtless receive the bodies of manypersons not resident in the Administrative County of London, the periods of time stated in the table under the heading Administrative County are too large. It is probable also that the longest period of time in each table more nearly approaches accuracy than the shortest period of time for the reasons that an acre could contain 1,200 graves measuring 9 feet by 4 feet, or 36 square feet, and that 1,000 graves per acre is a more accurate estimate of the extent to which burial grounds will eventually be used than is 500 graves per acre. The above figures, moreover, do not include the numerous existing graves which will for many years be used for interment. (6.) In considering whether it is expedient that any further regulations should be made in respect to burial grounds in the interest of health and decency it is obvious that it would be well, so far as this is practicable by regulations, to promote the adoption of practices that will ensure the speedy dissolution of the body. Thus every encouragement should be given to the use of perishable coffins in earth graves. The time has, moreover, come when advance should be made upon the system of interment in vaults and brick graves. The intention of their use is obviously to preserve the body for as long a time as possible; the interest of the community is to ensure the dissolution of the body in as short a time as possible. The requirement that bodies interred in vaults and brick graves shall be enclosed in lead coffins has no doubt the object of retaining the gases of decomposition as well as of preserving the remains. I have been told, however, that it is a common experience that these efforts are often futile, and that lead coffins from time to time burst from the pressure of accumulated gases. I have myself known of a lead coffin being punctured by an undertaker to obviate this risk. It is assuredly not an unreasonable demand that the provision of new brick graves and vaults in burial grounds in London should cease. (7.) For similar reasons the burial of bodies in clay is highly objectionable. Burial in a clay soil tends, as Dr. Young says, to the preservation of the body or "the products of decomposition pass into a liquid form which may be retained within the limits of the grave for an indefinite period, if no means of drainage of the grave exist." I do not believe that public sentiment would be satisfied with burial in clay if its unsuitability for this purpose were better understood. (8.) Beyond this the present system of interment in common graves is not calculated to meet the requirements of a reasonable sentiment. I refer to the "open grave" which is not closed until it has been filled with the numerous bodies it has been dug to receive. (9.) It is seen, however, from Dr. Young's report that custom in respect to method of interment is changing, that brick graves are less frequently demanded than before, that, although yet in small proportions, perishable coffins are preferred to coffins of oak and elm, and that the practice of cremation has made a distinct beginning and is increasing year by year. The public is learning by degrees that the thought of preserving the remains must be abandoned, and that the speedy dissolution of the body into its constituent elements must be facilitated and not retarded. (10.) The experience of Sir Seymour Haden aud Dr. Vivian Poore of the burial of the bodies of animals near the surface shows the rapidity' with which dissolution of the body is effected when thus buried,and undoubtedly it would be well to learn how far it would be practicable to adopt this method as a means of disposing of the dead, for what may be done with isolated bodies in a country district might not perhaps be found possible with numerous bodies in a London burial ground. (11.) Dr. Young has made an estimate of the amount of suitable land which would be required for the dead of the London population if surface burial were adopted, and he finds that fifty-five acres, or, with land for paths and an unburied-in belt, some seventy acres would be required annually, and the land could be again utilised after the necessary interval of time, which Sir Seymour Haden shows to be proportionate to the depth below the surface at which interment takes place. Similar estimate for Greater London shows that about eighty acres would be required for the number of deaths which now occur in a year, with an increase of about 17 per cent. per annum to allow for increase of population. (12.) If it were intended to encourage the adoption of methods of interment under natural conditions, which aim at the speedy dissolution of the body, much no doubt could be done if a representative body in each county were authorised to make regulations which put limitations upon the continuance of practices aiming at or leading to the preservation of the body. Such regulations would tend to guide public opinion, and might, as this grows in the proper direction, be strengthened from time to time. (13.) More speedy results would no doubt be attained if the ownership of all burial grounds were vested in public authorities who would not be influenced, as trading companies might be, in the retention of customs which it is desirable should cease. Especially, if it were determined to give facilities for surface interment, would it be desirable that ground so utilized should be in public ownership. Shiki,ey F. Murphy, Medical Officer of Health. 3 Dr. C.W.F. Young's Report. (1.) The instruction of the Committee is to inquire into the condition of cemeteries within the metropolitan area with a view to ascertaining whether any further provision for the purpose of burial is necessary, and whether it is expedient that any regulation should be made in respect to such places in the interest of public health and decency. (2.) It will be well in the first place to refer to the fact that a Royal Commission reported on the question of burial, more especially with regard to intra-mural burial, in 1850, and to state briefly the results of the Commissioners' report, so far as relates to the scope of the instruction of the Committee. (3.) Previous to 1850, however, namely, in 1834, the late Sir Edwin Chadwick had been requested to inquire into the subject of burial, and he presented a report dealing comprehensively with the whole question of the disposal of the dead, and containing recommendations with a view to effecting improvement in the conditions of funerals and of burial. This report does not appear to have been followed by action until the year 1850, when the above Commission—consisting of Lord Carlisle, the Earl of Shaftesbury, Sir Edwin Chadwick, and Dr. Southwood Smith—was appointed, and shortly afterwards presented a report on a "General scheme for extra-mural sepulture." (4.) The information which was obtained by the Commission shows that as regards the first part of the above instruction the accommodation existing at that time—practically the churchyards in the metropolis—had been exhausted, and that burial could only be effected in these places by disturbing the remains of bodies in existing graves within a period of time which, even if the soil had been virgin soil, was insufficient for allowing the process of decay to proceed to a stage at which nothing was left of the body, whereas in the case of these burial grounds the soil was already so saturated with the products of incomplete decomposition that it not only was illadapted to promote decomposition but was also the cause of nuisance in the immediate neighbourhood. (5.) As regards the second part of the instruction, the evidence obtained for the Commission showed that owing to this crowding of churchyards and to the increased demand for burial brought about by the increase of population, the interment of the dead could not be carried out with due regard to sanitary conditions and to feelings of sentiment, and indicated the need that in future interments should be specially regulated. (6.) The result of the report of the Commissioners was the passing of an Act which constituted the then existing General Board of Health—a Government department—the burial authority for the metropolis, with a view to closing the churchyards, the provision of new places for interment, and the taking over by the Board of Health of existing cemeteries which had been provided by private companies; for previous to 1850 the need which existed for further accommodation for the burial of the dead had been felt and had found expression, in the formation of cemeteries, that is places of burial provided under special Act of Parliament or under the Cemeteries Clauses Act, 1847, by private enterprise for the use of residents in London. Without entering into details, it is sufficient to state that this Act failed in its purpose, and was followed by further legislation in 1852, a new Act, the first of the Burial Acts (15 and 16 Vic. cap. 85), being passed. This Act (1) provided for the closure of existing places of burial by order in Council, with the exception that such order was not to extend to burial places belonging to Quakers or Jews unless they were specially mentioned in the order, and further by a special section (sect. 54) the cemeteries provided by private companies referred to above were exempted from the Act; (2) gave power to parish authorities to establish burial boards with a view to the provision of burial grounds for their districts; and (3) gave power to a Secretary of State to make regulations in regard to burial grounds with a view to the proper supervision and management of such places. This Act further provided that no new burial ground was to be laid out in the metropolis or within two miles of it without the authority of a Secretary of State. Several Acts amending the Act of 1852 have since been passed, the chief effects of which have been to make it applicable to the whole country, to extend the powers of the Secretary of State, to authorise the inspection of burial grounds, and to make the regulations so far as they relate to common graves applicable to the cemeteries belonging to private companies enumerated in a schedule to the Burial Act, 1852, or to any cemeteries established under a local Act. (7.) The powers given by the Act to establish burial grounds have been made use of by many * In this report the word cemetery is frequently used as a convenient and generally understood term signifying a place provided for the interment of the dead. In legal phraseology the term has a more restricted meaning. Thus a cemetery is either— (1) A place provided for the interment of the dead as a commercial undertaking, under special Act of Parliament or under the Cemeteries Clauses Act, 1847; or (2) A place provided for the interment of the dead by local authorities, under the Public Health (Interments) Act, 1879, by which the provisions of the Cemeteries Clauses Act are incorporated into the Public Health Act, 1875. This Act is not applicable to London. Local authorities in London are able to provide places of interment under the Burials Acts, which apply to the country generally. These places are known as burial grounds. The difference between a cemetery and a burial ground is not solely one of nomenclature, since in the case of a burial ground under the Burials Acts "a "portion of it must be tendered to the bishop of the diocese for consecration; whereas it is not necesary that "any portion of a cemetery should be consecrated at all." Further, while "no part of a cemetery may be laid "out within 200 yards of a dwelling-house, in the case of a burial ground all that the Burials Acts reiiuire is that "no one shall be buried within 100 vards of any dwelling-house without the consent of its owner or occupiers • "and in neither case apparently is there any provision which forbids the subsequent erection of dwelling-houses "in closer proximity to the graves.' —(Local Government—Blake Odgers.) In addition to these two classes of places for interment there is a third, namely, the parish churchyard For the most part these are now closed in London, but a few situated in the outlying and less populated parts of the county are still in use. 4 parishes in London at different times since 1852, and it thus conies about that the provision for burial at the present time consists mainly of burial grounds provided under the Burial Acts by local authorities, and of cemeteries provided under special Acts by private companies. There are also a few smaller places, namely, two parish churchyards in the outer part of the metropolis still in use, and some private placea belonging to religious bodies. Since the passing of the Burial Act in 1852 the number of cemeteries belonging to companies has been increased by the formation of others which have been opened with the approval of the Home Secretary, while one of those included in the schedule of the Act has been closed. As regards the burial grounds provided under the Act by the parish authorities two have already been filled, so far as new graves are concerned, and new grounds have had to be obtained, and in the case of several others the area of ground originally laid out has had to be extended owing to the filling up of space. (8.) The regulations made under the Burial Acts have undergone revision at different dates since 1852, and each burial ground of a local authority is subject to the set of regulations in force at the date of its approval. The regulations, it has already been said, do not apply to those private cemeteries which existed in 1852, except so far as relates to common interments, but a private cemetery which has been opened since 1852, and hence requiring the approval of a Secretary of State, would be subject at the time of its approval to conditions similar to those contained in the regulations. (9.) With a view to carrying out the instruction of the Committee, I have made visits to all the cemeteries at present in general use situated within the county, and also to a considerable number situated without the county boundary, but in such proximity as to be largely available for the use of residents within the county. The latter include all cemeteries provided outside the county by London parochial authorities as well as the Necropolis cemetery at Woking, which, although at a considerable distance, is, owing to the special railway facilities which exist for the conveyance of corpses from London, largely used for the burial of persons who die in the county. The following account regarding these cemeteries and the subject of burial is based upon these inspections, and upon the information obtained in conversation with the secretaries, superintendents, clerks of burial boards or burial committees of vestries, and others intimately connected with the places of burial. (10.) In addition to these places of interment, there are others in which burial occasionally takes place either under certain restrictions from the Home Office or because graves belonging to certain families have not yet been completely filled. These include a few churchyards, and some burial places provided by burial boards, closed except for members of families possessing graves not yet filled; and a few private places of interment for the use of members of certain religious institutions. These places have not been regarded as forming part of the general provision for the disposal of the dead, and have not been taken into consideration in the following account. (11.) As has been already stated at the commencement of the report, the instruction of the Committee is "to inquire into the condition of the cemeteries and burial grounds within the metropolitan area, and to report whether any further provision for such purpose is necessary, and also whether it is expedient that any regulation should be laid down in respect of such places in the interest of public health and decency." (12.) This instruction has been interpreted as one to inquire into the disposal of the dead by means of burial, and has not been regarded as including a consideration of cremation as a method of dealing with the dead. Incidentally reference has been made in the report to cremation (which must now be regarded as a recognised practical proceeding) with a view to forming some idea as to the influence which it possibly may have in the future upon burial. Beyond such mention the subject of cremation has not been dealt with. As regards burial in the earth, it has been found necessary to consider not only the method which is universally practised at the present time; that is one in which the bodies are buried at considerable depths from the surface, in which several bodies are placed in the same grave, one above the other, and in which, as final result, as soon as all the ground has been used the burial place is closed and never used again, but also another method,—which has been advocated chiefly by Sir Seymour Haden—the principles of which are burial near the surface, the use of perishable coffins, and the restriction of one body to a grave, with a view to the proper and complete decay of the corpse and the possible use of the ground again, after a sufficient interval of time has elapsed to ensure complete decay and to avoid any objection on grounds of sentiment. The latter method appears to present so many advantages as regards the conditions most suitable for insuring decay of organic matter, in comparison with the method now in vogue that considerable prominence has been given to it in the following report. (13.) The subject has been dealt with in the following way—A general account, based upon the information obtained during visits to cemeteries, is given as regards (A) the availability of the existing places for burial, (B) the expediency of making further regulations in regard to them, and this is followed by (C) the conclusions which are indicated by this information. A detailed account is then given regarding each burial ground and cemetery. Finally in the form of an appendix, information obtained partly in 1897 by means of a circular letter from the Council to the various authorities concerned, and partly during this inquiry, is given, showing the provision made by poor law guardians for the burial of paupers, with the charges in each case, and the parochial bodies (and the sanitary authorities to which they correspond) which have provided burial grounds, under the powers conferred on them by the Burial Acts, in place of the old churchyards. General Statement. (A.)—The availability of existing cemeteries and burial places. (14.) The information which has been obtained as to the amount of ground unused at the present time in existing cemeteries is not such as to enable more than an approximate estimate 5 to be made of the area available for interment. The reason for this is that, in most cases, only a general knowledge appears to be in the possession of those who are concerned with the different cemeteries, no recent surveys having been made and no systematic record apparently being generally kept with the object of knowing the area of the ground which has actually been used. Ordinary inspection of a burial place does not enable any one to give an opinion of much weight as to the extent to which the ground is occupied, if the judgment is to be made upon the standard of the area of grave spaces which was approved at the time the cemetery was opened. An attempt to form such an opinion would easily lead to error, since at some cemeteries it has been the custom to use the ground either by burying in alternate grave spaces, or in no systematic manner, with the result that headstones and monuments being as a consequence erected over the cemetery generally the ground has the appearance of being entirely used up, although really there may be intervening spaces which are still unused. The amounts of unused ground given in the following statement were obtained during the inquiry from officials connected with each cemetery, and may be regarded as approximating to the actual amounts sufficiently accurately to enable an idea to be formed as to the area of ground which is still available for burial. It is desirable to emphasise the fact that this does not include the space occupied by private graves which have already been buried in, but which are still available for further burial for the use of those who own them. (15.) Under the present mode of use the availability of existing places for interment depends partly upon the accommodation which is still left in graves (either earth graves, brick graves, or family vaults) in regard to which the exclusive right of burial for a certain number of bodies has been purchased at some previous date, and which have not yet been filled, and partly upon the amount of ground which, so far, has not been buried in at all. As regard? the former, it has not been possible to obtain information showing to what extent there is still accommodation for further burial in these private graves. It could doubtless be obtained by a careful examination of the register of the burial place since its opening, and by noting all the private graves not yet filled, and the number of bodies which can still be buried in them. It is doubtful, however, to what extent, if at all, this accommodation could be taken into account in forming an estimate as to the availability of the existing provision, since the use of such graves, being limited to members of those families by whom they were originally purchased, it is possible that owing to the family having become dispersed, or having left the neighbourhood, the graves may never be completely filled, or the time taken in filling them may be spread over an indefinite period lasting perhaps beyond the actual life of the burial ground or cemetery. This information as regards private graves not being forthcoming, estimate as to the availability of the ground now in use for the disposal of the dead is restricted to the area of ground which has not yet been buried in. (1G.) The information which it has been possible to obtain as to the extent of such ground is as follows— Cemetery. Total area. Area not yet buried in. (Estimated by officers of burial boards and cemeteries.) i. Cemeteries with clay soil. [London clay.] Within the County— Acres. Acres. Private—Norwood 40 20 Nunhead 54 26 Abney-park (some gravel) 33 10 S. Mary'a Roman Catholic 23 10 Kensal-green 70 20 Jewish, Islington 2 70 spaces. These have already been purchased. Parochial—Camberwell 32 16 Lambeth (a small amount of river gravel) 41½ 10 Putney (new) 13 12 Hampstead 20 10 Greenwich 16 No information. Lee 10 7½ Outside the county— Private—Chingford-mount 60 55 Elmer's-end 35 29 Jewish, Hendon 8 only 27 bodies buried so far „ Willesden 9 6 Parochial—Battersea 130 126 Paddington 25 7 Willesden, Old 26½ 20 „ New 4½ eighty spaces Total 652½ acres about 392 acres (and 150 spaces and unknown area in Green w ich cemetery ) 6 Cemetery. Total area. Area not yet buried in. (Estimated by officers of burial boards and cemeteries.) ii. Cemeteries having soils which consist partly of clay. [London clay, boulder clay, sand and gravel of higher grounds, Thanet and Woolwich beds, and valley gravel and sand.] Within county- Private—Highgate (clay and Bagshot sand) 38 8 Parochial—Wandsworth (clay and river gravel and sand) 34 30 Deptford (clay only to slight extent on surface, chiefly Woolwich and Thanet beds) 20 8 Lewisham „ „ „ 15 6 Outside county- Private—Great Northern (clay and gravel) 70 56 Parochial—St. Pancras (boulder clay and gravel) 105 70 Islington „ „ „ 79 49 St. Marylebone „ „ 40 20 Total ... 401 acres about 247 acres iii. Cemeteries having soils of gravel and sand. [Valley gravel, Bagshot sand and loam Thanet, Woolwich and Blackheath beds.] Within county— Private—City and Tower Hamlets (river gravel) 40 No estimate. A small area only probably under 10 acres Jewish,Mile-end (rivergravel) 4 ½ Government—Brompton (river gravel) 40 2 Parochial—Fulham (river gravel and sand) 14 2 Hammersmith „ „ 18 8 Streatliam „ „ 26 25 Plumstead (Thanet, Woolwich andBlackheath beds) 32 27 Charlton „ „ „ 8 4 Woolwich „ „ „ 32* 19* Putney, Old (river gravel) 2¾ None TootingChurchyard(gravel) - A small area Eltham Churchyard (sand) 2½ ¾ Outside the county— Private—Manor-park (river gravel) 45 20 East London „ 30 22 Woodgrange „ No information. Woking: (Batrshot sand) 500 400 Parochial—Kensington (river gravel) 15 6 St. George, Hanover-square (river gravel) 24 14 City of London(river gravel) 168 100 Total 1,001 acres (and unknown area in Woodgrange cemetery and Tooting-churchyard) about 660 acres (and unknown area in Woodgrange cemetery and Tooting-churchyard) (17.) Summarising the above into those within and without the administrative county and those in which the soil consists of clay, partly of clay and partly of gravel or sand, or of gravel and sand, it appears that there are, so far as information is available— Within county. No. of cemeteries. Total area. Area unused. Acres. Acres. Clay 12 354 141 Partly clay 4 107 52 Gravel and sand 12 219 98 Total 28 680 291 * from Parliamentary Return No. 412, July 26th, 1897. 13 Without the county. No. of cemeteries. Total area. Area unused. Acres. Acres. Clay 8 298 251 Partly clay 4 294 195 Gravel and sand 7 782 562 Total 19 1,374 1,008 (18.) The above may be taken as fairly representing the amount of virgin ground available for interment in cemeteries and burial grounds in and near the county of London, that is to say, ground which has been approved under special Acts of Parliament or under the various regulations applicable to burial grounds established since the passing of the first Burial Act in 1852, as being suitable for the purpose of burying the dead. (19.) An estimate of the probable duration of each cemetery under the existing recognised modes of use of the ground for burial might be formed by taking into consideration the number of burials per annum, the proportion of private to common graves per annum, and the area of grave spaces, and by allowing an average number of bodies to each grave. This would give the amount of ground which would be used each year, and from this the life of the burial place, so far as new graves are concerned, could be calculated. (20.) The information obtainable as to each of the above factors, and especially as regards the proportion of common to private graves, and the average number to each grave, is not sufficiently precise to justify an expectation that such an estimate would be so near the truth as to enable a satisfactory opinion being formed as to whether it is necessary to make other provision for the burial of persons dying in London. (21.) This is the less important, however, since there appears to be reason for thinking that such an estimate would not, for practical purposes, be of any great utility owing to the fact that it would be largely based on the assumption that the past mode of use of the ground will necessarily continue in the future. (22.) Now the regulations made under the Burial Acts of 1852, and the revision of them at present in force, are so framed as to recognise two distinct modes of burial, namely, entombment or the placing of the body in a brick grave, or vault, or mausoleum in a hermetically-sealed coffin with a view to its preservation, and inhumation or burial in the earth with a view to its decay. (23.) During the early periods of the existing cemeteries it was largely the custom to adopt the former of these methods of interment, but it is stated that during recent years a change has taken place in the views of the community and earthen graves are much more often chosen than brick graves, or their equivalents, namely, vaults, mausoleums above ground, or catacombs. The statements made regarding this point during the inquiry were practically unanimous, and it does not appear that the change of opinion is based upon the possible less expense involved by burial in an earth grave, but is due to an appreciation by the public that the proper object of burial is the decay of the body, and that the result of attempt at preservation by means of entombment is only a temporary delay in the process of decomposition. (24.) The change in opinion on the part of the community may reasonably be regarded as opening up the possibility of abandoning, in part, if not entirely, the present mode of use of ground set aside for interment, the essence of which is the filling up of graves both private and common with a certain number of bodies and never again disturbing them, and adopting a system which will allow, after a given interval, the use of the same ground over again for purposes of burial. Such a system would minimise if it did not entirely overcome the difficulty which threatens of continually increasing appropriation of land to provide for the burial of an increasing population. It may be added that the continued re-use of the same grave, after sufficient intervals of time between successive interments to permit complete decay, seems to be implied in the regulations made under the Burial Acts in which it is laid down that a grave shall not be used a second time—except for a member of the same family, that is practically private graves—until after an interval of 14 years, though the context, that a foot of earth shall be left over the last interred coffin, appears to indicate that the number of bodies for which any one common grave space is to be used is limited. (25.) If the present desire for burial in the earth, in place of entombment with the object of preservation of the remains, be regarded as sufficient to justify the consideration of making some alteration in the use of the land on the lines set out above, an estimate of the availability of the existing cemeteries and burial grounds can be made much more readily than under existing methods, and with a considerably greater degree of preciseness. As use of the ground in the manner suggested above has many advantages in comparison with the present mode, the estimate given in the following has been made in this way. (26.) Before proceeding to give such estimate it is desirable here to digress in order to see whether the object which, as far as can be gathered, underlies the change in opinion of the community—namely burial in such a manner as shall ensure a complete decay of the corpse within a reasonably short period—is or is not attained under the conditions of burial which prevail at the present time. (27.) The evidence which has been obtained in regard to this point leaves little reason for doubt, 8 short of actual examination of graves, that under the present conditions the desire on the part of the community is not oiten attained. In fact there seems little doubt that so-called earth burial is often little else than a form of entombment. (28.) Now the splitting up or decomposition of organic matter, in whatever form, is dependent upon the action of micro-organisms, which for the effectual fulfilment of their work need the aid of a sufficiency of air, a certain amount of moisture, and an appropriate degree of temperature. Interference with one or more of these conditions will result in retardation or alteration in the ordinary process of decomposition. Entire absence of air would prevent the oxidation needed in the breaking up of the complex organic matter into simpler compounds, and of these into their ultimate constituent elements, while excess of air, as by exposing the body to a continuous current of air, by promoting desiccation dries up the tissues and checks decomposition. The human body contains a large amount of water— in an average body weighing 154 pounds the proportion is about 96 pounds—and if desiccation be avoided this would probably be sufficient for the process of decay, but under ordinary circumstances the presence of moisture to a certain degree appears to favour decomposition. Excess of moisture, as for instance total submersion in water or burying in a soil constantly damp or waterlogged on the other hand interferes with decomposition and brings about a change of the soft parts of the body into adipocere, a compound of considerable permanency, consisting of a fatty acid in combination usually with ammonium. The temperature most favourable for inducing decomposition appears to be between 63°—70° F. A high degree of temperature tends to cause mummification, while a very low one practically stops any changes taking place in the corpse. (29.) The facts which are now about to be set out will show that under existing methods the body is buried in a manner which interferes with the most favourable combination of the agencies needed for its proper decomposition, and that it is possible, if alterations were made in regard to this method of disposal of the dead, to improve to a considerable extent the conditions under which it is placed. (30.) The causes which, under the present methods, lessen the value of burial in the earth will, for convenience, be considered under the three following headings. It must be borne in mind, however, that in practice these three causes, each of which by itself has influence upon the process of decay of the body, act together and it would be difficult to say as regards the result in any special case, to what extent one cause had had effect rather than another. It would appear, however, that taking them in order of importance as regards the influence which they play in interfering with the natural process of decomposition they may be considered as follows— (i) The depth at which bodies are buried. (ii) The character of the coffins in general use. (iii) The character of the soil of ground available for burial. (31.) (i) The depth at which bodies are buried.—In the first place it is necessary to point out that under the regulations no body must be buried within less than 4 feet from the surface in the case of an adult, or within less than 3 feet in the case of a child under 12 years of age. (32.) So far as private graves—that is, graves which have been purchased for the burial of members of one family—are concerned, it appears that the depth to which they are dug is less than it used to be in former years. A depth between 9 and 12 feet is usually now required. In the case of graves for common interments, however, considerably greater depths are dug, from 12 to 18 feet being not an uncommon practice, and in one or two cases the graves are 20 or 25 feet deep. (33.) The influence exerted by the depth at which a body is buried appears to have considerable effect on the process of decay. Experiments bearing on this point have been carried out with the bodies of animals by Sir Seymour Haden, and the following quotation taken from a letter which appeared in the Times in 1897, describes the results which he has obtained by burying bodies at superficial depths— - (34.) "For eleven years—since 1886 in fact—I have been burying in the grounds attached to this "house animals of every kind and size—calves, swine, cats, dogs, geese &c.—with the object of "ascertaining not only the depth at which interment maybe safely made, but the time at which "complete resolution of the buried body may with certainty be looked for. Beginning with a depth "of 4 feet—the depth prescribed by the Local Government Board—for instance, I have found that a "period of something more than four years (depending mainly on the size of the animal buried) was "necessary for complete resolution, and, speaking roundly, that for every foot of depth below the "surface a year or thereabouts was necessary; for a depth of 3 feet three years; of 2 feet two years; "and of 1 foot one year; in a word, that resolution was rapid in proportion as the grave was shallow "and the soil porous. (35.) "Nor is this all. For the last two years I have not been burying the body at all, but—simply "laying it on the ground and covering it in every direction with a single foot of earth—have "found that at the end of a year every trace of animal tissue had disappeared, the bones alone being "left. (36.) "Any one disposed to make a pilgrimage to this place may see one or more of these surface "parallelograms a foot thick in every direction, and, if a year have elapsed since the interment, remove "if he will, and break up the whole of it. He will find, as I have said, nothing but the bones, which "as an integral part of the earth's substance of course remain; and moreover, that the whole process "has been effected without the slightest appreciable effect either on the small portion of soil employed "or on the purity of the earth beneath or on the sweetness and freshness of the air around." (37.) Dr. Vivian Poore has also had similar results indicating that the more superficially a body be buried the more rapidly and thoroughly is decay found to have taken place after a given period. (38.) These results are what might be expected if consideration be given to the factors needful for the decomposition of organic matter, and more especially to conditions of temperature and the presence 9 of micro-organisms. As regards the former it may be said that the nearer to the surface the greater the influence of daily and seasonal changes in temperature; while as regards the latter examinations which have been made of soils show that there is considerable difference in the number of bacteria found in the soil according to the depth from the surface at which it has been obtained. Sternberg, writing on the subject of bacteria in soil (Text Book of Bacteriology), states as follows— (39.) "In some experiments made in 1881, Koch ascertained that in soil which had not been "disturbed but few bacteria were to be found at the depth of a metre, and this fact has since been "established by the extended researches of Frnkel. (40.) "Fräkel has given special attention to the examination of undisturbed soil not in the "immediate vicinity of dwellings. (41.) "The greatest number was not immediately upon the surface, but at from one-quarter to "one-half metre below the surface. (42.) "At a depth of three-quarters of a metre to a metre-and-a-half from the surface there was a "very great and abrupt diminution in the number of germs. (43.) "The most important fact developed by Fränel's researches is that in virgin soil there is a "dividing line at a depth of from three-quarters to one-and-a-half metres, below which very few "bacteria are found." (44.) In the case of ground which has been subject to disturbance, such as the digging of excavations which are then filled in again by the soil which has been excavated, as is the case in burial places, it is to be expected that examination of the soil might give different results owing to this cause alone, while the placing at some depth in it of a body carrying bacteria, as must be the case with a human corpse, would further tend to cause a difference. In a paper by Dr. J. Buchanan Yung, published in vol. 87 of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, on an examination of soil, at different depths, it is shown that "the soil of graveyards contains as a rule more bacteria than virgin soil, the difference " being most marked in the deeper layers, although the number of bacteria is net so great as " one would expect." Dr. Young refers in his paper to a research by Reimers on soil in churchyards, which demonstrated the fact, confirmed by his own examinations—that the number of micro-organisms is not greatest immediately under the coffin, but at a short distance above, although the number in the vicinity of the coffin was comparatively great, and further, that the number of bacteria diminishes rapidly in the soil under the coffin. Thus in two experiments the following results were obtained— (1) In the superficial layers of the soil 20,100 bacteria per c.c. At a depth within 1. metre of the coffin 44,500 ,, „ At a depth T6 metre just under coffin 42,300 ,, » (2) No coffin found but many bones at a depth of 1.5 metre from the surface. At a depth of 1 metre 85,000 bacteria, „ 1.8 44,600 „ „ 2 5,800 „ (45.) It is difficult to say to wnat .extent the increase in the number of bacteria in soil at a depth from the surface is due to bacteria carried by the body itself, but increase caused in this way must vary considerably according to the condition of the body, the nature of the disease which has proved fatal and perhaps the time which has elapsed between death and burial. Excluding diseases which are due to the invasion of the organs and fluids of the body by pathogenic organisms, the internal tissues of a body are at the time of death free from the presence of bacteria, except in the case of the alimentary tract. The organisms naturally present in this part of the body as soon as the person is dead initiate the process of decomposition. By causing softening of the tissues they are gradually able to spread from within outwards, and so prepare the body for the action of micro-organisms from without. In all probability the organisms which exist naturally within the human body are not able completely to effect the whole cycle of decay, and the action of external microbes is necessary. Brouardel, in one of a series of lectures on "Death and Sudden Death," translated by Benham, states that the first phase in the process of decay of all organic matter depends on the action of aerobic organisms, that is those requiring the presence of oxygen. This is followed by a second phase, during which the work is carried on by organisms which can act either in the presence of oxygen or not, and this is followed by the final stage in which anaerobic organisms, or those which do not require oxygen for their action, complete the process of decay. (46.) While, therefore, the number of bacteria at a depth from the surface is increased by disturbing the soil and interring the body in it, this increase is not likely to be so great as to place the body, so far as the presence of these needful agents is concerned, in a position as favourable for complete decay as if it were placed nearer the surface, and such evidence as flu-re is of the results of superficial as compared with deep burial confirms this opinion. (47.) (ii.) Character of the coffins in general use.—The use of coffins made of material—usually elm or oak—which, when placed in the earth, does not tend to be destroyed, is another factor which plays a part in frustrating the object of burial in earth graves. That this form of coffin does not decay is shown by the fact that wooden piles driven into the bed of rivers for the purposes of bridges, last for indefinite periods, and that the old wooden water mains which are at times excavated in different parts of London are found in a sound state of preservation. In the case of coffins the same thing applies, and instances are not wanting where a grave has been reopened down to the last interred coffin for a second interment after a considerable period, and the coffin found to be as intact as at the time of its burial. It is only when the coffin is of a character so fragile as to give way to the superincumbent weight of earth, or where, owing to moisture, the screws have undergone rusting and swelling and so caused bursting of the wood that opportunity arises for any contact between the corpse and the surrounding earth. In any case, the use of such coffins is to approximate the conditions of this socalled earth burial to that of entombment with this difference that the absence of a hermetically-sealed coffin, such as one of lead, affords opportunity for the gaseous and liquid products of decomposition [2] 10 to pass into the surrounding soil, which, if of an impervious nature like clay will retain them more or less within the limits of the original excavation, for an indefinite period. This latter point will be referred to later. (48.) A marked instance of the effect of an indestructible encasement of the body in retarding decay is given by Sir Seymour Haden, in a paper entitled "The Disposal of the Dead," dated October, 1888. After referring to the conditions which existed in the past, and which led to action on the part of the Government and the closure of the old churchyards or intramural places of burial which were overcrowded, and after pointing out that the provision then made for the future— namely, the opening of new places for interment "outside the town, to become in no long time as much inside the town" as those which had been abandoned—can only result in the creation of the original difficulty of "overcrowding" to be again remedied by the repeated opening of new cemeteries, he proceeds as follows — "It was under these circumstances that in 1875—impatient of a position at once so "helpless and so little creditable to us as a practical people, and scarcely less so of certain "fanciful proposals which were just then being put forward for its correction—I ventured to "advance the alternative recommendation of a simple reliance on the provisions and prescrip"tions of nature, and to promise as a return for such reliance a speedy extrication from all "our difficulties. Fortified by the well-defined cosmical law, which provides for a return to "the earth of all organized bodies that had lived and died upon its surface, I pointed out "that by enclosing the bodies of the dead in hermetically-sealed coffins, we were vainly "seeking to make them an exception to that law, and by preventing their dissolution, were "ourselves the cause of their embarrassing accumulation. Further, I showed that by the "simple expedient of enclosing them in coffins which would not prevent the resolvent action "of the earth—in coffins, that is to say, as perishable as themselves—we had it in our power "at any moment we pleased, if not wholly to undo the mischief we had done, at least "to stay its progress and to avert its ultimate consequences. Finally, I declared that if the "dead were only thus properly buried in from three to five, or at most seven, years from "the time of such proper burial, not a single dead body would remain to infect the soil, "and a quantity of land of incalculable value, now hopelessly alienated, would be liberated "for purposes of hygiene or of utility.* "Nor had I long to wait for a striking confirmation of the soundness of these propositions. About that time it leaked oilt that the Prussian Government were issuing a secret com"mission to enquire into the condition of the dead in the battlefields of the Yosges. A year "and nine months or thereabouts had elapsed since those battles were fought, and it was "feared, as many dead bodies were known to have been only very superficially buried, that "epidemic disease might result. What the commissioners found, however, entirely put an "end to any such fears. In cases in which as many as 800 dead bodies, in the hurry incident "to rapid military movements, had been thrust into one shallow excavation, these bodies it "was found had already disappeared, their bones and accoutrements alone being left. But to this unexpected disappearance there was a remarkable exception. The bodies of officers "buried in macintoshes, and which thus represented more or less the condition of bodies "uried in coffins, had not so disappeared. I was not at the time allowed by the rules of "our Intelligence Department to make any use of the information which, through its "instrumentality and the courtesy of our ambassador at Berlin, I had thus obtained. There "can be no harm in my using it now, though I do not know that it adds anything very "material to the previous knowledge which I had acquired by experiments conducted on a "small scale in my own garden, and on a larger during the removal of the Holborn burial"ground, in which latter case it was found, as I have stated elsewhere, that the only bodies "which had wholly disappeared were those which had been thrown without covering into "the plague-pit. And here I may as well mention other plague-pits which I have seen "opened—since we shall presently hear of the danger which attends the disturbance of all "such ground—that 1 never heard of any harm whatever having arisen from such disturbance "or from the exposure and removal of the bony residuum which constituted their sole "contents. No harm, indeed, resulted from the removal of the whole of the Holborn "burial-ground, though the operation, if I remember rightly, was carried out in the middle "of summer." (49.) To remove the obstacle placed in the way of the process of decay by solid wooden coffins, the use of coffins which are of a readily perishable nature when placed in the earth has been proposed. Coffins of different material have been introduced and made use of, but the one which, so far as can be gathered, best meets the requirements is that known as the earth-to-earth coffin. This coffin was introduced by Mr. Larkman, at one time secretary of the London Necropolis Company, and was patented by the company, but the patent has now lapsed. It is made of paper pulp or millboard about |th inch in thickness on a framework of wood, and with a wooden bottom, so as to give it the stability necessary for the weight of the body, and is lined internally with an impervious waterproof lining (such as is used in the packing of articles which are being sent abroad), in order to prevent any leakage from the coffin up to the time of interment. Externally it is covered with cloth and has the usual fittings. When placed in the earth it disintegrates within a space of two or three weeks, and allows the earth to come into free contact with the body. This form of coffin is not used to any large extent however, indeed there appears to be a marked preference on the part of the community to use coffins of polished wood rather than those covered with cloth. Such use as is made of it is almost entirely restricted to the wealthier classes. Compared with wooden coffins the cost to the ordinary public of an earth-to-earth coffin is * Haden, Francis Seymour, F.R.C.S., three letters to the Times, January 12th, March 13th and June 16th, 1875. Reprinted by MacMillan. 11 probably much the same, the charge varying between £2 to £20, according to the degree of elaboration, but in its simplest possible form, such as might be used by the guardians of the poor for the burial of paupers, the cost of its construction would be £1, or a few shillings more than the cost now paid for the simple elm coffin which is used in these cases. (50.) (iii.) Character of the soil.—A large extent of the ground still unburied in the cemeteries available for residents in London consists of a dense and tenacious clay, in some places low-lying or of a flat surface, and liable to be moist in character. There appears to be no doubt, from the statements made to me during this inquiry by persons connected with cemeteries, that the best soil for bringing about the decay of the dead is one of a dry and porous nature, such as sand or gravel, through which air, necessary for the oxidation of organic matter, can circulate without difficulty, and from which water falling on the surface and percolating into the soil can readily pass away.* A clay soil possesses neither of these advantages. An excavation in it is to all intents and purposes a water-tight receptacle, and if such an excavation be again filled in with the disturbed earth—as is the case when a body is buried—this disturbed earth, however well rammed down, remains more pervious than that forming the sides and bottom of the excavation and allows water to soak in at a rate greater than that with which it can pass away. It thus becomes damp, or even waterlogged, if efficient means are not resorted to for draining. Even with artificial aid to improvement such soil can never be as satisfac tory as one porous and naturally drained; and it would appear that the influence exerted upon the process of decomposition which sets in after death is one of retardation, the result depending upon the interaction of the various conditions brought to play, namely, the condition of the body, the interval which elapses between burial and death, the condition of the soil, as well as the conditions which have already been referred to, of depth of burial and character of coffin. Even in the case of a soil naturally porous, such as gravel or sand, it is essential that burial be not effected below the level of the subsoil water, and if this level be near the surface, drainage of the land is requisite before using it for burial in order that decay of the body be not retarded. The regulations of the Home Office provide for this by requiring that burial places shall be, if necessaiy, underdrained to such a depth as will prevent water remaining in any grave or vault. (51.) The final result of burial in a clay soil seems to be one of two, either (1.) the body remains without much apparent external change, or (2.) the products of decomposition pass into a liquid form which may be retained within the limits of the grave for an indefinite period, if no means of drainage of the grave exist. (52.) As regards the first of these, the following experience of a superintendent of a cemetery may be related. In the cemetery in question, the soil of which consists of low-lying London clay, a body was exhumed for transportation abroad, eight years after death, from a grave twelve feet deep. The coffin was found to have undergone a sort of dry rot, and during removal it partly gave way, exposing the upper part of the corpse. The face had the appearance of a recently deceased person, and had apparently undergone but little change. This, it was thought, was due to the fact that the grave, although not separately drained, was situated between two drained brick graves and immediately above the level of a cemetery drain, so that the ground was constantly very dry. In the case of an undrained clay grave, which has become waterlogged, it is probable that the tissues of the body would undergo a change into adipocere, or saponification, and that the body would retain its external form without marked change, as in the case of bodies which have been exposed to continual conditions of dampness for a long period, in other situations. (53.) Regarding the second of the above-mentioned results, which is probably of more frequent occurrence, if no means of drainage to the grave exist it sometimes comes about that when at a later date another grave is dug adjoining it, the existence of a layer of claystone, or other cause giving rise to a fissure in the ground separating the two graves, allows leakage of the foul contents with consequent inconvenience if not actual harmful effects to the workmen. An instance illustrating the above was heard of during the inquiry. One of the cemeteries visited, and which was opened within the last few years, is situated on a clay soil towards the bottom of a small valley. The ground when laid out was deep drained, but it was not considered necessary to connect the earth graves, as they were dug, with the drains. After burial had been taking place for a few years it was found that the earth graves showed signs of containing much water, and it was decided to tap them from a trench dug parallel to the row of graves, and to connect them with the drains. On tapping the graves liquid so foul escaped as to render the work difficult of execution. Another instance is given in a paper by Mr. C. H. Cooper, published in the transactions of the Sanitary Institute, vol. xv. In this case a trench was being dug close to a cemetery situated in a low-lying clay soil. The portion of the cemetery adjoining had not been buried in for 25 years, but so foul were the oozings from this ground into the trench as to compel the workmen to cease work at times. (54.) The following experience, related by a superintendent, appears to be an exception to the above remarks as regards the processes taking place in an earthen grave in a clay soil. In a cemetery with a clay soil a body was, with the approval of the Home Secretary, and at the request of the friends, removed from one private grave to another, after an interval of 12 years. The screws in this coffin had rusted, and the coffin was so dilapidated as to expose the remains. These con- * A similar opinion as to the soil best adapted for cemeteries is given in the report of the Commission of 1850 on a general scheme for extra-mural burial. Thus, in describing a site near London which had been chosen as being suitable for a proposed new cemetery, the following statements are made—"It rises by a gradual ascent from the river bank to the height of 80 feet above high-water mark. The surface is moderately irregular, being here and there a good deal broken, but consisting for the most part of gentle undulations and slopes. It comprises an ample extent of land, in a tract of gravelly and firm soil over chalk. Immediately below the gravel is a bed of sand 70 to 80 feet in depth." "Below the sand is the chalk, which is nearly on a level with low water, but water is not arrived at for the depth of from 270 to 300 feet. There are no streams or rivulets crossing the surface of the land in any direction and no springs whatever. These conditions secure the dryness of the soil, and are conducive to the natural process of decomposition." 12 sisted of the skeleton and hair only. In this case the grave was situated in the higher ground near the boundary of the cemetery, and was in the neighbourhood of trees, and this probably accounts for the conditions found, since it appears that the influence of trees in the neighbourhood of graves is to cause alternations in the conditions of moisture and dryness, producing rotting of the coffin as well as rusting of the screws, and so allows more intimate relation between the body and the soil. The presence of roots of trees would also tend to the draining away of the contents of the grave. (55.) Recognition of the result of burial in clay soil has led to the deep drainage of the land, and in many cases all or as many as practicable of the earth graves are directly connected with the drains, and burnt ballast or other loose material is placed at the bottom of the grave, and even used to fill up the grave at one end in order to allow the products of decomposition and of water passing into the graves to pass readily away. In those cases where the system of drainage is thoroughly carried out and is freely provided with ventilation by means of ventilation pipes and air inlets, the disadvantages of clay appear to be somewhat lessened For the most part, however, the drain connection of every earth grave in a clay soil is not effected. Common graves usually are connected, since in each cemetery they are dug more or less to the same depth, generally just above the level of the drains, and in the same part of the ground, so that there is little difficulty under these conditions in connecting the first grave in a row to the adjacent drain, and then laying a pipe between one grave and another throughout the row as each grave is dug. In the case of private graves, however, the depth chosen may be at seine distance above the level of the drains, and the spot chosen for the grave may be at some distance from the nearest drain, and connection with a drain would involve a greater amount of labour and time than can probably be given to it at the time. (56.) Further, in graves in clay soil gases of decomposition appear to be retained for a long Period, so that when a grave is re-opened a second time, upon reaching the depth of the last interred body, the effluvium, may be so great as to interfere with the work of the labourers. In such cases it may be necessary during the process of excavating to bore an opening through the intervening soil to allow a freer exit to the gases, so that the work may be proceeded with with as little delay as possible. In the case of graves in porous soils, such as gravel or sand, it appears that the reopening of graves is not attended by this drawback. (57.) At a cemetery which was visited during this inquiry, it was found that a condition had been imposed at the date of its approval which indicates that an opinion similar to that expressed above as regards the unsuitability of clay may have had influence at the time. The condition referred to is that at this cemetery the coffin when placed in the grave is to be embedded in concrete. This is done by first of all pouring in concrete in liquid form so as to cover the bottom of the grave, and then after the coffin has been placed in position pouring in more concrete so as to surround the whole coffin. The concrete is then allowed to set and the grave filled in. Action of the earth is thus entirely interfered with, and in fact burial in the earth is practically converted into entombment. It is true that a like condition of approval was met with at one other cemetery where the soil is not clay but river gravel, and one probably well suited for earth burial. The imposition of the condition in this case would not therefore be based on unsuitability of soil, but indicates rather an entertainment of the view that even in a suitable soil burial in the coffins now used, and at the depths customary, so far interferes with the object of earth burial, as to render the application of conditions of entombment desirable in the case of all earth graves. (58.) The disadvantages possessed by a clay soil are absent in the case of those of a gravelly or sandy nature. In such soil, owing to greater permeability, a freer movement of air and of water is able to take place naturally, and there is no need for draining graves or even the ground except primarily with a view to lowering the level of the subsoil water where it is proposed to bury at depths lower than this level. Further, the experience of those connected with cemeteries having soils of this character tends to show that the changes which go on are more rapid than in the case of an impervious soil, and that the reopening of a grave for a second interment, if not within a short period of the last interment, or the digging of a new grave in proximity to another already occupied, is seldom if ever accompanied by effluvium nuisance. The following experience has bearing on this subject of the advantage of a pervious loose soil—The soil of a cemetery consists of fine, dry sand, which is for the most part capped by a layer of clay varying from about 8 feet to 16 feet in depth. When the ground was laid out the surface, it is stated, was swampy and the ground was systematically drained at a depth of 9 feet, thus enabling graves 8 feet deep to be dug, or in other words allowed burial within the layer of clay. Some years afterwards the ground was redrained at a depth of 20 feet, and graves could after this be excavated into the sand. It is found in the reopening of graves, that those in the clay—the older graves in the cemetery—are generally very offensive, and the soil is much stained, whereas this is not so in the case of more recent graves in the sand. It was also stated that the coffins appear to disintegrate in the latter to an extent which does not take place in the clay. In the case of the grave of a child G feet deep in a cemetery with sandy soil, which was reopened after four years for a second interment, nothing appeared to be left but the skeleton. (59.) The above account of what takes place after burial of the human body by the existing methods is sufficient—so far as it is possible to form any conclusion without actual examination of graves definitely for this purpose—to show that the decay of the body is to a large extent interfered with by the conditions of its burial. To place the body under the most favourable possible conditions, it is essential— (i.) That it be not buried at a considerable depth. This requirement would carry with it another requirement, namely, that only one body be buried in the same grave. (ii.) That only coffins of readily destructible material be used. (iii.) That the soil used be of a suitable character. (60.) With these conditions it appears possible that after a certain period the body will have undergone decay to an extent that the ground may be regarded as being no longer occupied by 13 corpses, and as being therefore available for use over again for the burial of other bodies. If this be so, it would be possible to provide once for all the total amount of ground which is needed for the disposal of the dead by burial of a given population, the area of ground needed being subject only to alterations in the annual number of deaths. (61.) Before adopting means of burial with this object in view, however, further information is required, so far as the human corpse is concerned, (a) as to whether its more superficial burial is liable to give rise to objection, and (b) as to the period which should elapse before the grouni coxdd be used again. ((32.) In regard to the former it has to be pointed out that one of the results of the inquiry of the Royal Commission in 1850 was the framing of regulations which prohibited burial within a given depth of the surface, this being evidently with the object of preventing nuisance such as is shown by the evidence given before the Commission used to arise from the churchyards then in use. It must be remembered, however, that these churchyards had become so overcrowded with corpses that the soil had become impregnated with the incomplete results of decomposition, and it is probable that if the ground had been used in such a way as to avoid this, such objection would not have arisen. In connection with this matter reference may be made to a report by Dr. Brouardel, published in the Annales d' Hygiene Fublique, torn: xvi., 1886, on a proposal to lay out a cemetery at Boulogne-surSeine. In this report he refers to chemical and microscopical examinations made by Schutzenberger and Miquel respectively of the air of cemeteries in Paris, the results of which show that, the decay of bodies under normal conditions of inhumation gives rise neither to the escape of gases of a deleterious nature into, nor to an increase in the number of bacteria in the atmosphere. Thus samples of air collected at a cemetery showed no difference bacteriologically, from those collected in a public park in the suburbs of Paris. In the case of samples examined chemically only the ordinary constituent gases of the atmosphere, namely, nitrogen, oxygen and carbonic acid gas were found, the last mentioned being (in samples collected at the surface of the ground) slightly in excess of the normal. It follows, therefore, that other gases which may be produced in the process of decay of the body are absorbed and split up before leaving the ground. These analyses and researches seem to show that there is no cause to fear that the air from a cemetery need be of an injurious nature. Clay soil, with its liability to fissure to a considerable depth during hot weather, would, however, be subject to the risk of allowing offensive emanations to pass into the air without being subject to the influence of the earth. (63.) In the second place the possibility of disturbance of the remains by animals, which may be thought of as likely to arise from burial nearer the surface, needs to be mentioned. This, however, is a question of management of burial places, which could no doubt be provided for, so as to avoid any risk of its occurrence. (64.) Regarding the point as to the period during which a grave should remain undisturbed, the data for fixing this cannot be said to have been determined in regard to the human corpse in a manner sufficiently accurately to enable an opinion to be given. The existing regulations, in a qualified sense, imply that an interval of 14 years may be sufficient. The experiments with the bodies of animals which have been made by individual observers, and which have already been referred to, indicate that a period less than this is adequate for the disappearance of the body if the animal be buried superficially in a suitable soil, and without any covering which can retard the process of decay. Brouardel states in the report just referred to, that Schutzenberger has shown that in a soil of average permeability decay of organic matter is complete in five years. Further, the experience of the Prussian Commission, related by Sir Seymour Haden, shows that in the case of the human body the period necessary under the conditions of burial of the special case is well within 14 years. (65.) Before, however, any definite period could be given for guidance in the mode of use of ground in cemeteries, it is desirable to obtain further information by careful experiments as to actual results in the case of soils, which are available in the neighbourhood of London, and which appear to be of a suitable character. It is possible that conditions now exist in some cemeteries by which light might be thrown on this matter. In some of the parochial cemeteries when first opened, and when the number of burials was not so great as at present, bodies were buried in common graves at relatively shallow depths of five and six feet, and the grave then closed after a single burial. At Woking Cemetery similar graves exist. Some of these have not since been used, though an interval of 10 years having elapsed and the graves not having been purchased, the ground is now available for further use. A careful examination of this ground would possibly afford information bearing on the point. (66.) With the adoption of burial under the above conditions and on the assumption that the ground could be utilised over again after a known period, it is possible to form an estimate, with a certain degree of definiteness indicating the availability of the ground in existing cemeteries for a given number for all time. (67.) The total area of virgin ground in the list of cemeteries given in this report is some 1,300 acres. This includes ground the soil of which is London clay and is unsuitable. A deduction of this would leave roughly about 880 acres. This amount includes all the ground as yet unburied in in burial places included in groups ii. and iii. in the table given earlier in the report, and doubtless errs on the side of excess as regards soil suitable for earth burial, since some of it—though how much it is not possible to 6tate definitely—is of a clayey nature, and therefore not well suited for the purpose of burial. Now the total number of deaths in the County of London in 1897 was 79,209. The present regulations of the Home Office require that each grave space shall be, in the case of adults 9 by 4 feet, or 4 square yards, and in the case of children under twelve years of age 6 by 3 feet, or 4½ by 4 feet, or 2 square yards. Under a special set of regulations no definition is given of the grave space, but it is required that each grave must be separated from graves by an interval of one foot, which in practice means that the space to each adult grave is on an average 7 feet by 3 feet. It will be better, however, in estimating the amount of ground necessary, to take into consideration the larger space of 9 feet by 4 feet, which cannot be regarded as excessive for the purpose in the case of adults, and 6 14 feet by 3 feet for children under 12 years. The proportion of deaths of children tinder 12 years is somewhat more than a third of the total number, but for the purpose of this computation it may be taken as one-third. (68.) The deaths in 1897 therefore would be made up of 52,806 adults and 26,403 children under 12 years, and allowing the above spaces to each of these they would require the following amount of ground, namely— Adults 211,224 square yards. Children 52,806 „ „ Total 264, Square yards In other words 55 acres per annum would be required tor the dead of the bounty of London. increase of population, with a larger number of deaths, would necessitate a yearly provision of space greater than this, but in connection with this the following figures as to the yearly number of deaths in the administrative County of London are of interest— Year. Deaths. Population. 1891 89,017 4,232,188 (census) 1892 86,650 — 1893 90,364 — 1894 75,705 — 1895 85,416 — 1896 81,963 4,433,018 (census) 1897 79,209 — 1898 82,312 — (69.) The area given above does not include provision for paths, or for a belt of unused ground around the boundary of the cemetery. For these purposes it is computed, in a memorandum of the Local Government Board in regard to cemeteries, that 1/6th of the total area should be allowed for paths and buildings, and ¼th to 1/3rd, according to the configuration of the site, for a neutral belt separating the actual burial ground from adjoining property. (70.) From this estimate as to the area required for one year, it would be possible, with a knowledge of the period which must elapse before ground can again be used a second time for purposes of burial, to give an estimate as to the area which would serve for all time. (71.) There are three factors which to some extent qualify an estimate formed as above, and it would be necessary to make allowance for the influence which they would have upon the rate of use of the available ground. Two of these factors tend to increase, while the other tends to lessen the amount of ground which would be required in the future. So that in practice they would probably more or less cancel each other. The factors referred to are— (i.) The increase in the adoption of cremation of the dead body. (ii.) The persistence of the skeleton in the grave. (iii.) The custom of allotting graves for private or family use in perpetuity. (72.) (i.) The influence of cremation—In a speech recently delivered before the Cremation Society, Sir Henry Thompson, the chairman, reviewed the progress of cremation since the society was established in 1874. Prior to 1883 the society had given an assurance to the Home Secretary that no cremation would be carried out without previous leave from him, and cremation cannot be said to have come into recognised use before this year. In 1883 Sir James Stephens gave judgment in regard to a case of cremation which occurred in Wales, and which was the subject of legal proceedings, that cremation was a legal proceeding if no nuisance were caused. In 1885 the first cremation of a human body at the society's premises at St. John's, Woking, took place. Since that date the numbers in each year have shown a slow increase. Thus in 1885 the number of bodies cremated was 3 1895 „ „ „ 150 1898 „ „ „ 240 (73.) Further, during this interval crematoria have been erected in other parts of the country as follows— At Manchester, opened in 1892. At Glasgow, opened in 1894. At Liverpool, opened in 1896. At Hull, in course of erection. (74.) The Vestry of Camberwell in 1897 appointed a sub-committee to consider and report on the subject of cremation as a possible alternative to burial. This sub-committee reoommended in favour of powers being obtained to enable a crematorium to be erected by the local authority, and this was adopted by the vestry. The City of London has also decided to seek for power to erect a crematorium at its cemetery at Ilford. (75.) Other metropolitan authorities have also considered the question, and have adopted a similar recommendation", and it appears from information obtained by the sub-committee of the Camberwell Vestry that a large number of local authorities throughout the country have expressed approval of such amendments in the Acts relating to the disposal of the dead as may enable them to provide and maintain crematoria. (76.) The Council also has had under consideration the question of obtaining powers for the erection and maintenance of a crematorium. (77.) In a recent number of the Medical News, published in New York, the following figures are given as to cremation on the Continent of Europe during 1898— Gotha 179 bodies. Heidelberg 105 „ Hamburg 98 „ Jena 21„ 15 (78.) The following facts as to cremation in the United States are given in the British Medical Journal, July 8th, 1899—The first organised attempt at cremation in the United States was in New york, in 1874, and the first crematorium was erected privately at Washington, Pa., in 1876. It was not till 1885 that New York finally erected a crematorium. From that time till 1897 others were erected in different parts of the country until the total number reached twenty-five, of which one in Middleton, Conn., has not been put to use, and one in Washington, Pa., has gone out of use. More than half of these crematoria are connected with cemeteries. Undertakers control three. From 1884-1898 the number of bodies which had been cremated was 8,883, of which total 1,699 were cremated last year. There has been a slow, but steady increase. (79.) The extent to which cremation is at present in adoption as a means of disposal of the dead is relatively small, but it would appear from the above figures that objection to it on sentimental grounds is lessening, and it probably would be more widely made use of by individuals if the facilities for adopting it were greater and the cost less. A greater number of cremations would no doubt materially tend to lower the cost. The cost of the process at the present time at the crematorium at Woking is given in a pamphlet (1898) issued by the Cremation Society of England, at £5. This includes the charge for cremation, services of attendants at crematorium, use of chapel and waiting-room, as well as a simple urn for the ashes. In the case of a person dying in London it is stated, the total cost, inclusive of all charges, need not exceed £15. The ashes can be buried in ground attached to the chapel for the fee of one guinea. This would compare adversely with the minimum charge for burial in a private earth grave. But this expenditure is probably capable of being lessened. The Vestry of Camberwell obtained—for the purpose of the report referred to above—information as to cost of cremation at the Cimetiere de l'Fst, in Paris, and it appears from this that the cost varies according to the class of funeral, the minimum charge for persons dying in Paris being 50 francs. (80.) In the future, therefore, cremation is likely to have appreciable effect on the question of the amount of ground needed for the disposal of the dead. (81.) (ii.) The persistence of the skeleton in the earth—The persistence of the skeleton, that is, the inorganic portion of the body—which is insusceptible of decomposition—in its complete form is undoubtedly of considerably greater duration than that of the body itself, and disturbance of this would, on grounds of sentiment, be an objection to the use of ground over again, or at least would necessitate a prolongation of the period within which this could be done. It is possible, however, that in some soils, by a process of disintegration and crumbling, even much of the skeleton may lose its form, and under such conditions there should be no reasonable objection to the use of the ground again for the purpose of another interment,.indeed, sentimentally, there appears to me to be less objection to this course than to the present custom of burial in what are, known as " common " graves, that is unpurchased graves. These graves are dug of a depth sufficient for six or eight bodies, and are filled up forthwith with the bodies of persons who are in no way connected with each other, but who have died about the same time. The privilege is usually accorded to relatives to erect small headstones, with the result that several of these are frequently noticed on the surface of the same grave. (82.) (iii.) The custom of allotting graves for private or family use in perpetuity—The prevalent custom of purchasing graves offers probably a greater obstacle to the provision of burial places on the principle of again being able to utilise for burial the whole of the ground. This purchase of graves is not a purchase of the freehold of the piece of ground, but a purchase of the right of burial, which can only be exercised by the person who is the recognised owner of the grave, the limit to the use of the grave being whether it is full or not. Carrying with it the right to erect a monument over the piece of ground an additonal difficulty is introduced, and it appears likely therefore that a part of a burial place would always have to be reserved for the use of persons wishing to have the privilege of obtaining a grave the ground of which could not be disturbed without the sanction of themselves or members of their families. (83.) The adoption of burial under the conditions most favourable for promoting decomposition as set out above, is not, except as regards the kind of coffin, and to a certain extent the depth of burial, a matter within the control of the individual. The character of the coffin used is to a great extent under the control of members of the community individually, but although it appears to be their desire to be buried directly in the earth, owing either t.o a lack of appreciation of the effects of such coffins as are generally in use, or to the force of custom and the paramount influence of undertakers, or both combined, the methods which are adopted are such as to frustrate or at least to delay the object with which an earth grave is often chosen rather than a brick grave or vault. (84.) To ensure a combination of the most favourable circumstances, it would appear that actiou on the part of the legislature is necessary. (13).—The expediency of making further regulations in regard to places of burial. (85.) The second part of the instruction of the Committee is as to whether there is need for making any further regulation in the interest of public health. (86.) It will be necessary in this connection to refer to the methods of burial of the dead at present in use, and'to the question whether there is evidence that these methods lead to nuisance. (87.) The methods in vogue in the various burial places in the metropolis are based upon and subject to regulations made by the Secretary of State under the powers conferred by the Burial Acts, except as regards private cemeteries already in existence in 1852, which were formed under special Acts of Parliament, and which are only subject to the regulation as to common interments The first set of regulations was made in 1853, and since that date there have been several revisions. In addition, there is a special set of regulations differing slightly from the others, which is used in special cases. In a memorandum forwarded from the Home Office, with a complete set of the regulations, it is 16 stated that " the regulations have no general application per se. They are brought into force in " individual cases by the following process: Whenever the Secretary of State is asked to approve " a new burial ground, he gives his approval conditionally on the observance of the regulations "—in London all new burial grounds require his approval, and it may therefore be taken for " granted that most, if not all, the burial grounds opened in the metropolis, as defined by " schedule B of the Act, are subject to some regulations of the Secretary of State—which of the " six different sets of regulations they are subject to would depend on which of them was the on " in use at the date when the particular burial ground was opened." (88.) The following is an abstract in a tabular form of the regulations as revised at different dates since 1853. One or other of these indicate the conditions of approval of the cemeteries established since that date— Reflations. Year when regulations were made. Area of grave space required. Least depth of coffin from surface. Interval which shall elapse between interments.* Is foot of earth to be left between coffins ? Is there a regulation prohibiting more than one burial in a grave at one time ?* 1. 1853 If 17 yrs. of age or over. ft. ft. 9x4 If between 7—17 yrs. of age. ft. ft. 7x3 If between 0—7 yrs. of age. ft.in. ft.in. 59x29 3 ft.—4 ft. If 16 yrs. of age or over. 14 yrs. If between 7—16 yrs. of age. 10 yrs. If between 0—7 yrs. of age. 7 yrs. No. If corpse be undecayed, remains not to be disturbed, and grave not to be used. Eighteen inches of soil to be left over last coffin in private graves. Whenever a burial has taken place grave to be forthwith filled up with earth. 2. 1857-1863 If 12 yrs. of age or over. ft. ft. 9x4 If between 0—12 yrs. of age. ft. ft. 6x3 3 ft.—4 ft. If 12 yrs. of age or over. 14 yrs. If between 0—12 yrs. of age. 8 yrs. One foot to be left undisturbed, and, if offensive, soil not to be touched. No remains to be removed. One body only shall be buried in a grave at one time. 3. 1863 If 12 yrs. of age or over. ft. ft. 9x4 If between 0—12 yrs. of age. ft. ft. 6 X 3 or 4½ x 4 Ditto. Ditto. Ditto One body only to be buried in a common earth grave at one time. 4.—1882-1893 Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto One body only to be buried in a grave at one time. 5.—1893 Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto One body only shall be buried in an unwalled grace at one time. 6.—Present date. Form B—For general use. Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto ... One body only shall be buried in any common earthen grave at one time. Form A—For use in special cases. No earthen grave to be dug within 1 foot of any other Ditto Ditto ... Ditto One body only shall be buried in any common earthen grave on same day unless every coffin be forthwith covered with earth at least 1 foot thick, closely rammed and never to be disturbed. All the regulations require cemeteries to be kept drained, so as to prevent any water remaining in any grave or vault. Since the first framing of regulations in 1853 the requirements have been the same as regards (excluding consideration of requirements as to family graves) spare of grave, least depth of coffin from, surface, and interval of time which is to elapse before a grave can be used a second time, except that between 1853 and 1863 a slight and not important revision was made as to space required for graves of children. As regards private or family graves the only difference in the regulations is that those of 1853 required in the case of wall-graves or vaults an air-tight metallic coffin, whereas the subsequent regulations require that each body be entombed separately in an air-tight manner, i.e.. properly cemented stone or brickwork, which shall never be disturbed. In each earth grave burial can take place at any time on request of relatives. Since 1857 the regulations have required that one foot of earth shall be left undisturbed over last buried coffin when a second interment takes place. This evidently applies either to a private earth grave or to one which has not been purchased. In the set of regulations previous to this date, viz., 1853, the requirement was 18 inches in the case of private graves, and if in any grave the body was found to be undecayed the grave was not to be used. Since 1857 there has been a regulation prohibiting more than one burial at a time in a grave, but the wording is not always the same, thus, in the regulations of 1857 and 1882 the requirement refers to " a grave 's in those of 1863, to " a common earthen grave "; in those of 1893, to " an unwalled grave" ; and in those of the present date, to " any common earthen grave." * Excluding private graves. 17 A special set of regulations exists now which differs from all the above—(1) in not defining the area of grave, but each must be one foot from another; (2) more than one body can be buried in a grave on same day if one foot of earth be put in and rammed down never to be disturbed, and if bodies be those of members of the same family. (89.) The method of burial in the cemeteries which have been visited (excluding those belonging to the Jewish community) may conveniently be considered as regards private or purchased graves and common or unpurchased graves. (90.) In the case of the former, when an interment is to be made for the first time the grave is dug upon the site selected to a depth varying according to the number of bodies which the purchaser anticipates it will be used for, and when an interment has been made the grave is forthwith filled up to the level of the ground, and afterwards, if the relatives so desire, they are allowed to place a headstone or other form of monument over the grave. When the grave is needed for a second or third interment, it is re-opened to within a short distance of the last interred coffin, with the object of leaving undisturbed the interval of earth prescribed by the regulations. It appears, however, from statements made during the inquiry, that at some cemeteries, owing to the demand of relatives, it is necessary to expose either the entire coffin last interred or the coffin plate, otherwise complaint is made that the wrong grave has been opened, or that some other person has been buried in it during the interval which has elapsed since the last interment. (91.) For the purpose of common interments, the practice now in vogue in most cemeteries is to have ready for use a number of graves varying in depth from 10 to 20 feet. These are generally dug in a row side by side or end to end in a special part of the burial ground, or cemetery, and it is generally found that all the open graves are in use at the same period so as to avoid the necessity of keeping one burial waiting until another has been completed when there is more than one on the same day and at the same time. In such cases a common interment service may be held over two or more bodies in the chapel and at the grave side, if the graves be close to one another. Arrangements, however, exist at those cemeteries where many common interments take place, to have burial services at fixed intervals—about every ½ to 1 hour—during the afternoon (no burials taking place in the morning except when special fees are paid), and by this arrangement the same grave may be used more than once on the same day, the previously interred coffin being covered with earth before another is buried. As regards two cemeteries, however, it was stated that more than one burial in the same grave on the same day was prohibited by special regulation. Common graves are similar in size and shape to ordinary private graves. No such thing as an excavation sufficiently large in area to admit more than one adult coffin at the same level was met during the inquiry. They only differ in appearance from private graves, in that the latter are usually solitary openings, whereas the common grave forms one of a number in a part of the ground specially set apart for the purpose, but each grave is separated from the other by an interval of earth. This collection in one spot of a number of graves leads often to an untidy appearance of the immediate surroundings—which is absent in the case of the private grave—owing to presence of the bank of earth which has been excavated. (92.) In use, common graves differ from private graves in that a number of persons, in no way connected, are interred in each, and that the grave is not finally closed until it has received its full complement of bodies. (93.) The use of a common grave in this way—that is, delaying the final closure till it is filled with coffins—is common in all the cemeteries. Originally when parochial cemeteries were first provided in place of the old churchyards, it appears to have been the custom in many of them to fill up a common grave at once after one interment, each body being given what is termed a " churchyard grave." The present practice of using common graves as a recognised method appears to have arisen upon an application to the Home Secretary by a parochial burial board in 1858. As a result of this application an inquiry was made on behalf of the Home Secretary into the local circumstances, with the result that the regulation, that only one body shall be buried in the same grave at one time, was relaxed, subject, however, to the following condition, which was set out in the letter from the Home Secretary to the local authority, namely, " provided that everv coffin is immediately covered with soil one foot in thickness, and the soil closely rammed down, and that no common grave in which several bodies have been buried is ever again reopened." Precedent apparently being thus established, the custom has been adopted in other cemeteries, as the population of the district for which the cemetery provides, and as the number of interments have increased, the objects being the economical use of the ground, and saving in the labour and time necessitated by the frequent opening of the ground. (94.) As regards economy of space, if burial in the earth, carried out as has been suggested earlier in the report, allows the ground to be used over and over again after a given interval, the above method—that is, one which prevents any further use at any time of the ground occupied by common graves—is not the most economical. During the inquiry, ground was seen which, originally used for the burial of one body only in a common grave, was now again available for burial, an interval of 14 years, as required by the regulations, having elapsed since its previous use, and in some cases such ground was again being utilised. If burial had been effected in the manner suggested, i.e., one body in a grave, within a few feet of the surface, and with perishable coffins, a shorter interval of time would probably have sufficed. (95.) As regards economy of labour and time there is much probability that this is effected by the present custom, since the digging of a separate grave for each body would involve, in order to comply with the regulation requiring 4 feet of earth to be left between the surface and the coffin, a minimum excavation for each interment of 6 feet or so. (96.) This, however, appears to be the only thing which can be said in favour [3] 18 of the present practice of burial in common graves. On the other hand, there are several disadvantages. Practically there is the objection that a common grave, as at present used, remains unclosed generally for several days, the interval between the first and last interment varying, in different cemeteries and at different times of the year, from two or three days to ten days or a fortnight. During this interval the coffins already interred lie in a partially-filled excavation covered by a thin layer of earth, while the top of the grave is covered over by boards. In cases where a long interval elapses between two interments the grave is often filled in up to the surface temporarily with loose earth. From the point of view of sentiment there are the objections (1) that a number of persons in no way connected are placed in one grave, and (2) that relatives in some cases do not like a deep grave. The former objection is one which, it may perhaps be said, would apply in the case of a separate grave if, after an interval of years, it is to be again used for a common interment, but the objection would only exist in a modified degree, since the ground would not be used again till the remains of the previous occupant had undergone complete decay, and during the interval the immediate relatives may have left the neighbourhood, or have given up visiting the grave. As regards the latter, it was stated at one cemetery that it had been found necessary to reduce the depth to which common graves were dug owing to this objection, and at others application is at times made for a shallow grave, that is to say, for burial in a grave which has nearly received its full complement—and at one cemetery I was informed that the desire to have a shallow grave has led to unpleasant scenes at the grave side when more than one interment was taking place. In such cases the intense expression of feeling appears to have been connected with religious sentiment, but in most the explanation given to account for the preference for a shallow grave is the belief commonly held that the relatives of the last interred body possess a greater right to the surface of the grave than the relatives of more deeply interred bodies. It may also be that a desire to purchase a grave at some future date, and to remove the body to it may have some influence, since permission for such removal can no doubt be more readily obtained in a case where the disturbance of other bodies is not involved. (97.) In several cemeteries it is the custom to use the upper part of adult common graves for the bodies of children, two or three coffins being placed on the same level. In others, however, children are buried in separate common graves of a smaller size and shallower depth than the adult grave. The reason for this is that there is an objection on the part of relatives to burying children at a great depth. (98.) Cemeteries belonging to Jews do not come within the above remarks. In these it is the custom not to bury more than one body in a grave. The depth of burial is not more than G feet from the surface, and the coffin must be in contact with the soil. Brickwork is at times used at the sides of graves, but this is rather with a view to forming a support for a monument, and the space between the brickwork and the coffin is filled in with earth. In no case is there brickwork on the bottom of the grave. Coffins are similar in character to those used by other persons. (99.) So far as the present practice of common interments is concerned, the existing regulations if applied, would appear to be sufficient to prevent the practice. If, however, more superficial burial is to be regarded as the proper mode of interment the regulation as to minimum depth from the surface would perhaps need revision. (100.) During the course of my inquiry I did not myself experience any nuisance. It would appear possible, however, that the custom of interment in common graves, which frequently are not filled and finally closed for an interval of several days, the coffins being covered with only a small amount of earth, may lead to the passage into the atmosphere of foul gases which are being disengaged from bodies in different stages of decomposition enclosed in coffins which, while not being hermetically closed, are yet sufficient to prevent the contact of the surrounding earth with the corpse, and to lessen the deodorising action which this contact would probably have. Further, as regards cemeteries where clay exists there is no doubt, from the statements made, that in dry weather fissures occur in the soil over graves to a much greater depth than in a clay soil which has not been disturbed. In one cemetery I was informed a fissure was searched and followed to a depth of 8½ feet, and in another instance it appears that during the dry summer of 1898 unusually deep cracks occurred, and one was followed with a probe till the underlying coffin was reached. The occurrence of such fissures gives rise to the liability of the direct passage into the atmosphere of gases which have previously been pent up by the impermeability of the clay soil. The re-opening of graves may also cause nuisance in the immediate vicinity, and if the soil be of clay this would occur even after a long period since the previous interment. (C.) Conclusion. (101.) The conclusion indicated by the facts set out in the foregoing part of this report is that there would be advantage if alterations could be made in the conditions under which the burial of the human body in the earth is at present effected. The recognition by the community of the true object of burial, which is indicated by the preference for earthen graves rather than vaults or brick graves, lends hope to the idea that eventually there would not be any objection to an acceptance of the view that tenure of the ground by a corpse is, under such conditions, of a temporary nature only. (102.) With a view to bringing about alteration in the present conditions, the following steps might be taken— (103.) That power be obtained to bury bodies at superficial depths with a view to the examination of the ground at a future date. (104.) That, if no contra-indications were forthcoming, the existing regulations should be relaxed, with a view to allowing burial within two or three feet of the surface, provided that the nature of the soil be suitable, and that bodies be buried in coffins made of perishable material. 19 (105.) That, if in any special case there be no reason to the contrary, permission should be given, in regard to existing burial places, to utilise the upper layer of ground which has been already used for common interments, and which is no longer, under existing conditions, of further use; provided that the body be buried in a coffin of perishable material. (106.) That perishable coffins be used in the case of all paupers or the bodies of hospital cases buried at the expense of the guardians. (107.) The adoption of burial under the altered conditions would do away with the present undesirable method of common interments, and each body of adult and of child would have its separate grave. (108.) Secondly, it would to a large extent, if not entirely, overcome the difficulty which exists under present conditions of having at periodical intervals to extend existing, or to provide new cemeteries, by enabling the ground to be utilised over again after a sufficient interval has been allowed to elapse since previous interments. It is this difficulty which, with a view to the economy of space, has led to the present undesirable mode of interment in common graves. The persistence of desire to erect monuments over the actual site of interment would possibly necessitate the reservation of part of the ground for graves to be held in perpetuity, and to this extent would restrict the use of the whole area of ground over again. Details as to each Cemetery. (109.) The information contained in the following account has been obtained by inspection of the cemeteries and by personal inquiry of clerks to burial boards, superintendents of cemeteries, and secretaries to cemetery companies. The statements made as to the amount of ground still available for use should be regarded as approximate estimates based upon the intimate knowledge possessed by those who have had, for the most part, to do with these places of burial for a number of years. (110.) In the case of Paddington, the clerk of the burial committee of the vestry has been good enough to obtain, by going through the registers since the date of opening of the cemetery, the number of graves already used which are still available for further burial, and the total number of interments which can still be made in them. (111.) In the following account the cemeteries have been arranged in alphabetical order, and are given in two classes, namely, those situated— (а) Within the administrative County of London. (b) Without the administrative County of London. (112.) The administrative county differs from the metropolis as defined in the Burials Act, 1852, in that the latter includes the parish of Willesden, but excludes the parishes of Lee, Eltham, Kidbrook, Lewisham, and the hamlet of Penge. A.—Cemeteries situated within the County of London. (113.) Abney-park cemetery—Opened 1839. Situated at Stoke Newington, the cemetery is surrounded on all sides by houses in proximity to its boundaries. The soil of nearly one-half the area of the cemetery consists of sand varying in depth from 2 to 20 feet or more, the remainder of the area consisting of London clay. In some parts a running sand is met with at a depth of about 12 feet. The cemetery is drained at depths of 8 to 15 feet by brick drains, which discharge into the metropolitan sewers. All these drains are laid underneath pathways; they drain the ground and surface water. The total area is between 32 and 33 acres. Of this there are, it is stated, about 10 acres not yet buried in, consisting of small plots and single spaces, the largest plot being about 3/4 acre in area. This distribution of what is regarded as virgin soil is owing to the fact that in the past it has been customary to sell only every alternate space. This ground will, it is estimated, probably avail for 50,000 interments. As regards the ground already used, about 15 acres of private graves can still be buried in, and will, it is expected, provide for 25,000 burials, if all is used. The area of space generally purchased in the case of private graves is 8 feet 6 inches by 3 feet, 9 feet by 4 feet, or 10 feet by 4 feet. Common graves are all 25½ square feet. The usual depth required by purchasers of private graves is 12 feet. A greater depth than 14 to 15 feet is discouraged by prohibitive charge for excavation. Common graves are from 14 to 20 feet deep, and usually 8 to 10 bodies are interred. It takes from a week to ten days to fill a common grave, but during the summer time they are not kept open so long, so as to prevent any risk of nuisance. The catacombs at this cemetery are never used now. The use of brick graves has alto much diminished. The total number of interments in 1897 was— Private 1,014 Common 557 Total 1,571 (114.) Brompton cemetery—Opened 1840. Situated at West Brompton, the cemetery is bounded on the south-west by the West London Junction Railway, immediately beyond which are two athletic grounds, and one of the 20 hospitals of the Metropolitan Asylums Board. On the remaining three sides there are houses in close proximity to the cemetery. The ground is flat, and the soil consists of river sand and gravel, which extends to a greater depth than it is ever necessary to excavate for a grave. The cemetery is not deep drained. Sub-soil water is reached at a depth of 7 or 8 feet at the northern part, but at other parts the ground is dry to a depth of 17 feet. The total area is 40 acres, and all this, except 1 to 2 acres of ground comprising the margins at either side of the central avenue, and plots of small extent between graves, has been buried in. Allowing an average of 4 bodies to a grave the virgin ground will, it is estimated, avail for the interment of some 7,200 bodies. As regards the area already used for graves, about 12 acres is entirely filled up. In the remaining 25 acres the graves are still available for re-opening. No grave is re-opened unless a depth of 5 feet can be dug after allowing one foot of soil over the last interred coffin. The area of grave space is mostly 7 feet by 3 feet; a few are 8 feet by 3 feet or 9 feet by 4 feet. There are no common graves in use now. The depth varies from 7 feet to 17 feet. At this cemetery there are many mausoleums, one was in course of erection at date of visit. There are also catacombs and brick graves and vaults. The use of the former is not now allowed, and demand for the latter has much diminished of late years. About six brick graves were sold during 1897. The total number of interments in 1897 was 738. All these, except 98, were burials in graves already used. (115.) Camberwell cemetery—Opened 1856. Situated at East Dulwich, near Honor Oak station on the London, Chatham, and Dover Railway, which bounds the cemetery on the east. On the south and south-east there are houses close to the cemetery. The ground is for the most part on a slope, and the soil consists of stiff London clay, barely needing timbers to stage up the sides of graves as they are dug. Clay stone is occasionally met with. The cemetery is deep-drained. The total area is 32 acres, of which it is stated 16 acres are still unburied in. It is estimated that about 100,000 bodies can be buried in the cemetery if all private graves are used for the number of bodies for which they were originally dug. In a report to the Vestry of Camberwell by the superintendent of the cemetery, dated November, 1897, an estimate is given that if burial be continued as at present the ground will last between 30 and 40 years. The area of grave space is, for private graves 6 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. G in. ,, ,, ,, common graves 6ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 6 in. The depth usually required for private graves is 12 feet. Common graves are 12 to 15 feet deep, mostly 12 feet. On an average 8 bodies are interred in each common grave, the upper part being used for children's bodies, two or even three coffins being placed on the same level. This allows the grave to be filled to within 3 feet of the surface. Brick graves are occasionally wanted. The interments in 1897 were— Private 477 Common 3,121 Total 3,598 (116.) Charlton cemetery—Opened 1855. The situation of this cemetery is on high ground to the south-east of Old Charlton. The soil consists of a dry sand or gravel in the older portion, and of gravel in a recent extension of the cemetery. The soil forms part of the Woolwich and Heading and Thanet geological beds which come to the surface in the south-east of London. Drainage is not needed except for carrying away surface water. The total area is 8 acres, and of this quite 4 acres, it is estimated, are yet unburied in. Most of the ground already used is occupied by purchased graves which are still available for re-opening. The area of all grave spaces is 9 feet by 4 feet, except as regards graves in one portion which was originally plotted out in spaces of 7 feet by 3 feet. Private graves vary in depth from 6 to 12 feet, the greater number being 12 feet deep, and a few are 15 feet deep. Common graves were formerly only dug 6 feet, and only two bodies were interred in each; now it is the custom to dig to a depth of 12 feet for the larger and 9 feet for the smaller size grave spaces. Children are always buried in separate graves, 7 feet by 3 feet in area and 12 feet in depth. Common graves remain open for a period of 1 to 2 weeks before being filled; if longer than this they are temporarily filled in during the interval. Three to four bodies are interred in each common grave. Very few brick graves are required. The number of interments during 1897 was— Private 104 Common 121 Total 225 21 (117.) City and Tower Hamlets cemetery—Opened 1841. Situated a little to the south of Bow-road, the cemetery is surrounded by houses in close proximity on all sides, except for a short extent at the south-east corner where a railway forms the boundary. The houses are separated from the cemetery boundary by public roadways except at the eastern limit, where houses on one side of "Wellington-street have small yard spaces extending to the margin of the cemetery. The surface of the ground is level, and the soil consists of gravel and sand, except near the railway, where clay is met with in parts. The ground is drained at a minimum depth of 20 feet, the drains discharging into the local sewers. The ground is said to be very dry. No graves are connected with the drains. The total area of the cemetery is 40 acres. There appears to be no knowledge as to what amount of ground has not yet been buried in, but it is stated that at the present rate of burial the ground is estimated to last for about 14 years. There is no plot of ground of large extent unburied in. Such vacant ground as is available is made up of small plots in different parts judging from the appearance of the cemetery. In the ground already used a large number of private graves are, it is stated, still available for re-opening. The area of ground usually purchased in the case of private graves is G feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches, intervals of 1 foot laterally and 2 feet between rows being allowed between graves. Common graves are of the same area, with lateral intervals of 1 foot and 2 to 3 feet alternately, and intervals of 9 inches to 1 foot between rows. The most usual depth in the case of private graves is 10 to 12 feet. Common graves are dug 18 to 20 feet deep, and 7 or 8 adults are interred in each. Children are buried in separate graves, each grave containing about 14 coffins. The use of brick graves has much decreased. The number of interments in 1897 was— Private 370 Common 2,465 Total 2,835 (118.) Deptford cemetery—Opened 1852. Situated at Brockley, adjoining Lewisham parochial cemetery, which forms the western boundary of Deptford cemetery. On the north and north-east lvy-lane and Brockley-road, having houses on the opposite side, form the boundary, while on the south-east and south there are houses and some open land. The sub-soil, made up of the Woolwich and Reading beds, consists of fine sand capped, over the greater part of the cemetery, by loamy clay, varying, in thickness from 8 feet to J 6 feet. The ground is drained at a depth of 20 feet, the drains discharging into the local sewer in Ivy-lane. "When the cemetery was laid out, the ground, which was very damp in character, was drained at a depth of 9 feet. This only allowed graves to be dug to a little over 8 feet—that is within the limits of the clay portion of the soil. In 1875 the cemetery was redrained at 20 feet, thus allowing use to be made of the sandy soil underlying the clay. It is found that on reopening private graves in the clay the soil is generally offensive, even after a number of years, whereas those which have been dug into the sand are not so. In the latter case also it has been found that destruction of the coffin takes place much more readily than in the more superficial clay layer. Tha total area is 20 acres (including 4 in reserve, which have been acquired since the cemetery was opened). Of the total it is estimated that there are about 12 acres of virgin soil available for burial. This ground—apart from the 4 acres in reserve—is made up mostly of small plots, and spaces between graves, owing to the fact that it has been the custom to bury in all parts of the ground since the cemetery was opened. As regards private graves, most of them are still unfilled. The area of grave spaces in the case of both private and common graves is 9 feet by 4 feet for adults, and 9 feet by 3 feet for children. A frequent depth for private graves is 12 feet. Common graves are mostly 20 feet deep. The length of time which it takes to fill a common grave varies; it may be two or three weeks it is a deep grave. When the cemetery was first opened it was the custum to give a " churchyard " grave in the case of common interments—that is, each body had a separate grave, which was filled in forthwith. The use of brick graves now is quite infrequent. With a view to using up some which were formerly built, a small commission is given to undertakers when one of them is used for burial. The number of interments in 1897 (March, 1897-1898) was— Private 109 Common 1 ,739 Total 1,848 (119.) Fulham cemetery—Opened 1865. The cemtery is situated on the east side of Fulham Palace-road. Houses are gradually being built on the land surrounding the cemetery. The cemetery has been enlarged twice since it was first opened. The ground is flat, and the soil consists of fine river sand and gravel extending to a greater 22 depth than that required for any grave. Originally the level of the subsoil water was reached at a depth of 9 to 11 feet, but now it is not reached till 17 feet, this probably being due to the construction of sewers in the neighbourhood owing to the erection of houses. The cemetery is not deep drained. The total area of the cemetery is 14 acres. Of this about 2 acres only are virgin ground. But a large extent of the ground has in the past been used for common graves, in each of which one body only has been buried. It was the custom at first when the number of burials was not great to give each body a "churchyard" grave, and to fill it up at once. This ground is now available for use again, and it is estimated will provide for some 6,000 bodies. The area of each grave space is 7 feet by 3 feet. When the cemetery was first opened 9 feet by 4 feet was required for each grave, but about 1884 application was made to the Home Office, and the adoption of the smaller area allowed. The depth of private graves varies, but if no special depth is fixed on by relatives 7 feet are excavated. Common graves are dug 17 feet, and usually six bodies are placed in a grave. Children are buried in separate graves. There are brick graves and vaults here, but they are mostly family graves, first buried in years ago. Brick graves are only occasionally required nowadays. The total number of burials in 1897 was— Private 483 Common 1,429 Total 1,912 (120.) Greenwich cemetery—Opened 1857. Situated to the south of Shooter's-hill, not far distant from the Herbert Military Hospital and the new hospital of the Metropolitan Asylums Board. There are no houses in the immediate neighbourhood. The greater part of the cemetery is situated on sloping ground, and the soil is made up of clay, which in parts is very damp. The ground is drained by means of main brick drains, and lateral drains across the burial plots. Only brick graves are connected with the drains. The depth of the lateral drains varies; the main drain is 12 feet from the surface at the receiving points. Brick graves are seldom required. If a vault space be purchased it is often used as an earth grave. The total area of the cemetery is 16 acres. No further information has been obtained regarding this cemetery. (121.) Hammersmith cemetery—Opened 1869. The cemetery is situated at Margravine-road, Fulham. Houses have now been erected in its immediate neighbourhood. The soil consists of river gravel and sand, the subsoil water being generally reached at a depth of 12 feet from the surface. It is not deep drained. The total area is 18 acres, of which about 8 acres are still virgin soil, but no definite information was obtainable on this point. The area of all grave spaces, both private and common, is 9 feet by 4 feet for adults, and 4 feet by 3 feet in the case of children. The depth of private graves is usually 10 feet. Common graves are dug to 12 feet, that is to the level of the subsoil water. During some years past no common graves have been dug in new ground owing to the fact that when the cemetery was first opened it was the custom to give, in the case of each common interment, a separate grave which was then closed. Much of the ground was therefore occupied by bodies each in a separate grave, but at such a depth as to allow sufficient interval between it and the surface for more bodies. The period of 14 years laid down in the regulations having elapsed, this ground is now being used over again. The number of bodies buried in each common grave depends upon the depth to which these graves can be reopened. Brick graves are seldom made use of now. The number in this cemetery is not large. The number of interments in 1897 was 1,441 (about 130 private interments on an average in each year). (122.) Hampstead cemetery—Opened 1876. Situated at Fortune-green, Hampstead. There are no houses in proximity except towards the south-east corner of the cemetery. The soil consists of London clay, and the cemetery is drained at depths varying from 8 feet to 30 feet from the surface, the drains discharging into the metropolitan sewers. All common graves and brick graves are connected with the drains. A layer of burnt ballast is placed in the bottom of each earth grave, and one end of each grave is filled in with ballast up to the surface with the object of ensuring free drainage of water passing into the grave. The total area is nearly 20 acres, and of this about 10 acres have not yet been buried in. There were some 15,000 grave spaces still available in 1897. The area of private graves is 6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches, with an interval of 1 foot on all sides. If a greater amount of space is required a second space of the same size must be purchased. Common graves are the same area. Vault and brick graves are 9 feet by 6 feet 6 inches, or 9 feet by 4 feet. Private graves are usually dug to 11 feet; common graves vary in depth 23 according to the level of drain; at date of inquiry they were being dug 15 feet. The number of bodies in each common grave varies, the upper part of the grave being used for the bodies of ohildren. In all cases one foot of earth is left between coffins. Common graves remain open for a week or more in consecrated ground; longer in the unconsecrated portion, as the burials are not 60 frequent. The demand for brick graves and vaults is decreasing. A few are generally kept ready for use if required. The number of interments in 1897 was 821. (123.) Highgate cemetery. This cemetery consists of two portions separated from each other by a roadway. Waterlow-park adjoins on the north-east. On the south-east there are houses and Highgate Infirmary, and on the remaining sides there are but few houses at all close to the cemetery. The cemetery is mostly situated on a considerable slope, but at the south-east and lower part the surface of the ground tends to become flat. The soil consists of sand extending for a depth of 35 feet in the higher and middle part of the ground; the lowest part is tenacious day, which cracks deeply in dry weather. A fissure has been traced for 8 feet 6 inches. Between the clay and the sandy portion the soil is a marl. The ground is deep drained, and brick graves are connected with the drains, which empty into the metropolitan sewers. Common graves are also connected with the drains. The total area is 38 acres. It is stated that about 8 acres of ground are still unburied in. In the older and higher portion no large plot of ground remains unused, and common graves are being dug wherever there are any available strips of ground. Only a small number of Private graves have as yet been filled. It is not possible to say what area of ground has been used for common graves, as these are widely dispersed over the cemetery. The area of private graves is 6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches, 6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 10 inches, 9 feet by 4 feet, or 9 feet by 6 feet (a double grave). Common graves are dug 7 feet by 3 feet. Private graves are generally required to be 12 feet deep. Common graves are dug 16 to 20 feet deep, and 6 inches of earth are, it is stated, left between each coffin. There are here mausoleums, catacombs, and brick graves, but none of these are now made use of to the extent which formerlv prevailed. The total number of interments during 1897 was— Private 1,254 Common 414 Total 1,668 (124.) Jews' cemetery, Islington. This is a small burial ground of about 2 acres in extent, having houses and a factory in close proximity. The soil is gravel. The ground is now practically closed, no interments taking place except in spaces which have already been purchased. There are probably about 70 spaces still available, each of which is approximately about 9 feet by 4 feet in area. No more than one body is placed in a grave, and the grave is never again disturbed. The depth of graves is 6 feet. Brickwork is never used except sometimes at the sides of the graves to serve as a support to a monument. The coffin rests on the soil, and the interval between the sides of the grave and the coffin is filled in with earth. (125.) Jews' cemetery, Mile-end-road. This cemetery is situated on the north side of Mile-end-road, and close to the workhouse. The soil consists of river gravel, and the area of ground is 4 acres, which has all been used except some 500 spaces, which are still available for use. The area for each grave varies according to the size of the coffin, intervals of one foot being left between rows of graves and halfa-foot between the graves in each row. There is no distinction of graves. Graves for adults are dug never less than 5 feet (usually about 6 feet) deep, and for children a foot less. A grave is never used again, and not more than one body is interred. The coffin must always rest on the soil. Occasionally brickwork is placed at the sides for the purpose of forming a better support for the grave stone. The number of interments at this cemetery is on an average about 60 in each year. (126.) Kensal-green cemetery—Opened 1833. This cemetery is situated on the south side of the Harrow-road, in Kensal-green, and immediately north of the Grand Junction Canal. St. Mary's Roman Catholic cemetery adjoins on the west. The surface of the ground has a considerable fall in most parts, but becomes flat at the western end. The soil is made up of London clay. It is drained at depths varying from 7 to 14 feet from the surface, and brick graves are connected with the drains which discharge into the metropolitan sewers. The total area of the cemetery is 70 acres. The area which has not yet been buried in is as follows—There is a large piece of ground at the west end of the cemetery 21 which, it is estimated, is approximately about 20 acres, in which there are as yet only a few graves Jotted about here and there, and some common graves at the boundary margin. In addition there is a good deal of ground consisting of small plots, and single spaces amongst the existing graves which would probably be equal to 15 acres in all. There has not, however, been any recent survey of the ground. The ground already buried in is said to be chiefly occupied by private graves, and the majority of these are still available for further interment. The area of private graves is usually one of the following, namely, 6 feet 6 inches, by 2 feet 6 inches, S feet by 3 feet, or 9 feet by 4 feet, with lateral intervals of one foot and intervals between rows of 2 feet. Common graves are 6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet G inches, an intervening space being left in between, this ground being sold for use as cheap purchase graves. When the intervening ground is so used, there would be an interval of 6 or 7 inches between each grave. The depth most frequently required in the case of private graves is 10 or 11 feet; this is sufficient for four bodies. Common graves are now mostly dug to a depth of 16 feet. In these six to seven adults and two to three children in the upper part are interred. A grave takes about eight or nine davs to fill. There are many mausoleums here, also brick graves, but the demand for them has much decreased of late years. The total burials in 1897 was— Private 1,089 Common 960 Total 2,049 (127.) Lambeth cemetery—Opened 1854. The cemetery is situated at Lower Tooting, near Garratt-lane. At present on two sides there is open land, that on one side being land belonging to the Vestry of Lambeth, and on the other land used for agricultural purposes. On the third side a railway forms the boundary, while on the fourth is a public road. Houses are now being built on the land on the opposite side of this road, and will, eventually, extend close up to the cemetery. The ground is low-lying and flat, and the soil consists of a dense clay, with layers of clay stone in places, necessitating the use of a pick-axe when excavating graves. A quantity of water is generally found in the neighbourhood of these bands of stone. In some parts of the cemetery there is a superficial layer of river sand and gravel. The cemetery is drained at a depth of 11 feet, the drain pipes being laid in all parts underneath the footpaths. Vaults and brick graves are, where possible, connected with the drains. Where this is not possible a pipe is brought up near to the surface, so that when necessary—e.g., after heavy rain, or just before the grave is to be re-opened—it may be pumped dry. The total area of the cemetery is 41½ acres. Of this about 10 acres have not yet been buried in, while some 13 acres already used are possibly still available for other interments. It is estimated that the virgin ground will provide for 40,000 bodies. The area of grave space is, for private graves 8*5 feet (brick graves, 9*4). „ „ for common „ 8*4 „ The depth of graves is, for private graves various. „ „ common „ 12 feet. As a rule four or five bodies are interred in each common grave. Children are buried in separate graves. There are but few brick graves in the cemetery, and they are seldom required now in the case of new graves. The total number of burials in 1897 was 3,750. (128.) Lee cemetery. This cemetery, situated on the east side of Hither-green-lane, is at present at a considerable distance from houses. The surface of the ground has a considerable declivity. The soil consists for the most part of London clay, but a small portion on the higher ground is gravelly and very hard in character. The cemetery is drained by a main brick drain 12 feet deep, which was constructed when the ground was originally laid out for burial purposes; lateral drains were put in in 1874 at the same depth. Only brick graves are connected with the drains. The total area is 10 acres (4 in reserve), of which 79 acres about are still unburied in. All grave spaces are 9 feet by 4 feet in area. Private graves are usually 8 feet in depth. Common graves vary from 15 to 18 feet, and in them are interred four or five adults, and children in the upper part of the grave. They remain open for periods of two or three weeks. The number of brick graves required each year is small. The total number interred in 1897 was 183. (121).) Lewishcim cemetery—Opened 1858. Situated on high ground at Ladywell, adjoining Deptford cemetery on the west. To the south there is open land, but on the north-east boundary houses are in close proximity to the cemetery. The soil is loamy clay and sand, part of the Woolwich and Reading geological beds 25 which, come to the surface in this neighbourhood, and is of a very dry character. Sand is reached at 7 feet at the south end, and at a depth of 14 feet at the north-east portion. The land is deep drained at a depth of 32 feet, the drains discharging into the metropolitan sewers. No grave is connected with the drains. The total area of the cemetery is 15 acres, including a recent addition of 6 acres. Of this there are 6 acres, and some spaces in between graves in the used portion of ground, which have not been buried in yet. It is estimated that there is room for about 3,900 graves, which in all probability will be mostly private. Allowing an average of five bodies to a grave this will provide for 19,500 bodies. In the ground already used very few of the private graves are yet filled. There are 3,184 private graves, each 6 feet G inches by 3 feet 6 inches, or about 5 acres of ground. The area of grave spaces now for both private and common graves is 9 feet by 4 feet. The usual depth dug for private graves is 12 feet, for common graves 20 to 22 feet. Originally the latter were only dug 8 feet, and were closed after the interment of one body. These are now being filled up with more bodies. There are still several hundred such graves in the cemetery not filled. The usual number interred in new common graves is 10 or 11 bodies, a grave taking from a week to sixteen days to fill. Burial in the earth is preferred to burial in brick graves. The use of the latter has decreased considerably in recent years, not more than one a year on an average being required here. The total number of interments in 1897 was— Private 260 Common 717 Total 977 (130.) Nunhead cemetery—Opened 1840. This cemetery is situated in the parish of Camberwell, and houses have now been built in close proximity to it on the north-east and north-west. The cemetery is on high ground, and the surface has a considerable fall in parts. The soil consists of dense London clay, but in one part a small belt of running sand is at times met when excavating graves. The total area of the cemetery is 54 acres. About two years before the date of inquiry a survey was made, and it was then found that there were 28 acres of virgin ground, including spaces between existing graves. Since the date of this survey it is estimated that about two acres more had been used, leaving about 26 acres available for new graves. It was estimated that if the rate of burial remained the same as up to the date of survey the cemetery would last for another fifty years. The area of private grave spaces is 6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches, 8 feet by 3 feet, or 9 feet by 4 feet, according to the position in the cemetery in which the grave is chosen, the larger areas being in the more desirable situations. Common grave spaces are 6 feet G inches by 2 feet G inches. The depth usually required in the case of private graves is 12 or 13 feet—that is a grave for six bodies—but any depth may be required, and exceptionally a depth of 30 feet has been dug. Common graves are dug 18 feet, 20 feet, or 24 feet deep, and in these respectively 7, 9, and 12 bodies of adults, together with one or two rows of children's coffins in the upper part are buried. In all cases 5 feet of soil are left between the top coffin and the surface of the ground. The catacombs at this cemetery are extensive, but they are seldom used for burial now. The use of brick graves and vaults is also decreasing. The total number of burials in 1897 was— Private 931 Common 4,403 Total 5,334 (131.) Plumstead cemetery—Opened 1890. Situated in Wickham-lane, close to the boundary of the county. The ground is on an elevated situation, and the surface has a good slope. The soil consists of sand and gravel of the Woolwich and Reading geological series. In some parts chalk has been reached at a depth of 13 feet, but it is in most parts not nearer than 20 feet from the surface. The ground is not drained except for surface water. The total area available for the purpose of the cemetery is 32 acres, but only 10 acres have so far been appropriated for use. Probably not more than 5 acres have yet been buried in, and this area mostly contains private graves still available for further interment. About half-an-acre contains common graves, and is no longer available for further use. All grave spaces for adults are 9 feet by 4 feet, and G feet by 3 feet for children. The majority of private graves are dug 10 feet: that is a depth sufficient for three interments. Common graves are dug to 20 feet and 8 bodies are interred. Children are not buried in adult common graves but have separate graves 12 feet deep, or sufficient for six children. When the cemetery was first opened common graves were not dug deeper than 10 feet, but the ground was thus being rapidly used up, and as on inquiry it was found that at other cemeteries a greater [4] 20 number of bodies was buried in a grave, the Burial Board decided to do so likewise. A common grave takes from 6 to 7 days to fill. Brick graves are seldom required. The number of interments in 1897 was 657. (132.) Putney cemetery (new)—Opened 1891. Situated on the south-east side of Kingston-vale, towards the bottom of a small valley. There are no houses in the immediate vicinity. The soil consists of a dense clay. It is drained at a depth of 14 feet by open jointed pipes laid at intervals of 50 feet in trenches which are filled up to within 6 inches of the surface with ballast. When first opened earth graves were not connected with the drains, but it was afterwards found necessary to do so, and it is now the practice to drain each row of graves by a drain passing from one grave to another till that nearest a drain is reached; this one is connected by a pipe passing into the ballast surrounding the drain. The bottom of each grave is filled in with a layer of ballast in which the drain lies. The total area of the cemetery is 13 acres, but only 6¼ are in use. Of the total, 12 acres are yet unburied in. The amount of ground so far used for common graves is small in extent. It is estimated that 40,000 interments can still take place in the cemetery. The area of grave space is, for private and common graves, 9 feet by 4 feet. The depth usually required in the case of private graves is 10 feet. This is also the minimum depth dug, while a maximum of 13 feet is never exceeded. Common graves are usually dug 13 feet deep, and generally provide for 6 coffins. Brick graves are only occasionally constructed, burial in the earth being preferred. There are probably not more than 20 brick graves in the cemetery, though it is stated this is a cemetery used by persons who are well off and residing in the west-end of London. About four is the average in each year. The interments in 1897 were— Private 97 Common 101 Total 198 (133.) Putney cemetery (old). Situated at Putney Lower-common. There are no houses in close proximity. The soil consists of river gravel. The cemetery is now full as regaxds new graves, but is still used for the burial of those who own private graves. The total area is 23/4 acres. There is probably provision here for the further burial of 1,500 bodies, if all the graves are used. (134.) St. Mary's (Roman Catholic) cemetery, Kensal-green—Opened 1858. Situated to the west of and adjoining Kensal-green cemetery, it is bounded to the south by the Grand Junction Canal, and on the north by a railway. The surface of the ground has a slight fall to the west. The soil consists of tenacious London clay, which gets harder and drier the deeper it is excavated. The ground is drained at a depth of 12 feet. The drains discharge into the metropolitan sewer in Scrub-lane at a depth of 35 feet. All the drains are laid underneath paths. No graves are connected with them except brick graves. Earthen graves in proximity to brick graves are really drained by the latter. The total area of the cemetery in use is between 22 and 23 acres. In addition there are between 4 and 5 acres of land in reserve. The amount of virgin ground now available is approximately about 10 acres. In the ground already used there are probably some 9,000 private graves, and most of these are still available for re-opening. It has been estimated that at the rate of burial in the past the cemetery will last for 60 years. The area of each private grave is 9 feet by 4 feet. The space allowed to each common grave is 8 feet by 3 feet 6 inches. Formerly and till about the year 1863 the space was 9 feet by 4 feet, and only one body was buried in a grave. The reduced space was then allowed by the Home Secretary, but until 1869 it remained the custom not to bury more than one body in a grave. This ground is now again available for use under the conditions laid down in the regulations. The depth of most private graves is 12 feet, but a depth of 25 feet has been required. Common graves vary as to their depth from 7 feet to 16 feet—that is, sufficient for from two bodies to nine bodies. The difference in depth depends upon the requirements at different times of the year. Children are buried in separate common graves, 6 feet by 3 feet in area, and never more than 7 feet deep. There are catacombs here, and also a few mausoleums and brick graves. The catacombs are still used to a fair extent, but chiefly for the corpses of foreigners who have died in England, the corpse being placed here temporarily with a view to transportation to the native country of the deceased. The number of burials in 1897 was— Private 332 Common 1,469 Total 1,801 27 (135.) Streatham cemetery—Opened about four years ago. The cemetery is situated at the western limit of the parish, near Garratt-lane. At present there is open land around it. The surface of the ground has a slight fall towards the west in the direction of the river Wandle. The soil consists of a fine white and dry river sand down to a depth of 10 to 12 feet where clay is reached. The ground is drained at a depth of 25 feet, the drainage being lifted by pumping into the neighbouring sewers. Earthen graves are connected with the drains. The total area of the cemetery is 23 acres in use, and 3 acres in reserve. Of this about 25 acres have not yet been buried in. There are only 3 rows of graves which have been used for common interments, and which therefore cannot be again disturbed. The remainder of the graves are private, and available for reopening. The area of grave spaces is, private and common, 9 feet by 4 feet G inches. The depth of graves is as follows—In the case of private graves a greater depth than 9 to 10 feet is seldom required. This is sufficient for three interments. A greater depth than 12 feet is never dug. In the case of common graves 20 feet is the depth. The number buried in each common grave is 7 to 8 adults, and children in the upper part of each adult grave. This allows the grave to be filled within 3 feet of the surface. Common graves are sometimes not filled for three weeks. In such case the grave is temporarily filled in with loose earth over a plank bottom. An interval of 9 inches to a foot of soil is left between each coffin. Brick graves or vaults are seldom required. Number of interments in 1897— Private 91 Common 292 Total 383 (137.) South Metropolitan or Norwood cemetery—Opened 1838. Situated at Lower Norwood, the cemetery is surrounded on all sides by houses. The surface of the ground is hilly, and has a good fall in a northerly direction. The soil consists of London clay. The cemetery is not deep drained, but there are superficial drains for carrying off the surface water. The total area is 40 acres 28 perches, of which it is stated that some 20 acres are still unburied in. This area of 20 acres will, it is estimated, provide for 150,000 interments. The ground already used is mostly filled with private graves, the proportion of common interments being small. Probably 12 acres of the occupied ground is still available for further interments, and will provide, it is estimated, for about 70,000 bodies if all graves are used. The area of private graves is G feet G inches by 2 feet 6 inches, or as much more as may be purchased. For common graves an area of 7 feet G inches by 3 feet 6 inches is allowed. The usual depth required in the case of private graves is 10 feet; the minimum depth of any grave is 7 feet. Common graves are 18 feet deep, and provide for 8 to 10 coffins, an interval of one foot of earth between each being left as near as possible. In the case of private graves, the desire on the part of relatives to see the last interred coffin does not always permit an interval to be left between coffins, and it is stated that in practice a private grave 15 feet deep is found to provide for as many interments as a common grave of 18 feet. There are at this cemetery— (1) Catacombs, under the Episcopal chapel. (2) Mausoleums. (3) Vaults and brick graves. (4) Earth graves. Catacombs are seldom used now. The mausoleums are chiefly erected by members of the Greek community in London, who use this cemetery. There are many of these buildings here. Vaults and brick graves, it is stated, are much less frequently wanted than formerly, probably • one to forty or fifty earth graves, but there are a considerable number in the cemetery which were constructed in former years. The number of interments in 1897 (including still-born children) was— Private 1,214 Common 802 Total 2,016 (136.) Tooting Churchyard. This is the burial ground for those dying in the parish of Tooting, except those persons in public institutions which exist in the parish—e.g., Chelsea Union and a fever hospital. It is situated at St. Nicholas Church, in Lower Tooting, and has open land to the south and east. The soil consists for the most part of gravel, with bands of clay here and there. Common interments, or interments of paupers, do not take place here. In the case of all graves the right of burial is purchased, except in the case of children, and most are family graves. The usual depth of graves is 9 feet. 28 Brick graves are still buried in to a small extent—about four a year on an average at this churchyard. The number of interments in 1897 was 123. (138.) Wandsworth cemetery—Opened 1878. Situated on rising ground in the parish of "Wandsworth, to the east of Garratt-lane, and just south of the South-Western Railway main line. Some distance to the north-east is Wandsworth Prison. There are no houses in proximity to the cemetery. The surface of the ground has a good slope. The soil consists partly of clay and partly of river gravel, and a new piece of ground, lately acquired with a view to extension, is of a sandy nature. The cemetery is drained at a depth of 13 feet, and brick graves are connected with these drains. The total area is 34 acres; of this 12 acres are enclosed and 9 laid out for cemetery purposes. The remainder is used for nursery or agricultural purposes. Of the total, 30 acres have not been buried in, while of the 4 acres already used about 1 acre is occupied by common graves, and is therefore not again available for interments. The area of grave spaces is, for private and common graves, 9 feet by 4 feet. The depth of private graves is variable, but the tendency, it is stated, is to have graves lor single bodies. Common graves are dug 17 feet usually, four adults and three children being interred in a grave. The bodies of paupers are interred at Woking cemetery. There are only a small number of brick graves or vaults here. They are seldom required now. The number of interments in1897 was— Private 160 Common 765 Total 925 (139.) Woolwich cemetery. I am unable to report on this cemetery. The local authority has failed to supply information regarding it. B.—Cemeteries situated outside the boundary of the County of London. (140.) Battersea cemetery (new)—Opened 1891. Situated at Morden, in Surrey, the cemetery is surrounded by open country on all sides. The ground is low-lying, and for the most part flat and has a small brook running through part of the land purchased for use as a burial place. The soil consists of London clay, and is drained at a depth of 11 feet from the surface, the effluent being pumped from a well into the Croydon sewerage system. The total area of the ground is 130 acres. Part of this is let for grazing; 62 acres are in use for burial purposes. Some 4¼ acres of ground have now been buried in, about 3 of which are occupied by common graves which cannot again be disturbed. Probably one-sixth of the private graves are also full. The area of all grave spaces is 9 feet by 4 feet. Children are, as a rule, buried in separate common graves, for which the same space is allowed. Private graves are mostly 7 feet deep. Common graves are dug to 10½ or 11 feet, and, as a rule, the corpses of five adults are interred in each. They are usually filled within two days. There is no demand for brick graves, and none have yet been constructed in this cemetery. The number of interments during 1897 was— Private 149 Common 1,932 Total 2,081 (141.) Battersea (old) cemetery—Opened 1860. (Situated within the county.) This cemetery is now only used for burials in private graves which have not yet been filled. Chingford Mount cemetery—Opened 1884. This is owned by the proprietors of Abney-park cemetery. The soil consists of clay. The ground is drained for surface water by means of drains laid underneath the pathways. The area of the cemetery is 60 acres, in only 5 acres of which have burials taken place, and in at least 2 acres of the latter graves are still available for further burial. The area of grave spaces is as follows—For purchased graves, 8 feet 6 inches by 3 feet, 9 feet by 4 feet, 10 feet by 4 feet; for common graves, 25½ square feet, or 8 feet 6 inches by 3 feet. Private graves are usually required to be of a depth of 12 feet. Common graves vary from 14 to 20 feet, and 8 to 10 adult bodies are in most instances buried in each grave. The use of brick graves and vaults is dying out. 29 The number of interments in 1897 was— Private 395 Common 3,218 Total 3,613 (142.) City of London cemetery—Opened 1856. This cemetery is situated at Little Ilford, Essex, adjoining Wanstead-flats. There are but few houses in the immediate vicinity of the ground. It is close to Manor-park cemetery. The ground is for the most part of fairly level surface, and the soil is made up of river gravel, with clay in parts. The gravel extends to a depth of 15 feet or less. The land is deep drained, and all common graves are connected with the main drains by drains passing from one grave to another, and then to the main drain. The effluent discharges to the river Roding. The cemetery comprises 168 acres, of which 118 are enclosed for burial purposes, and 50 acres are in reserve. In 1892, of this area 56 acres 2 roods had been buried in or devoted to graves. On an average it is found that each acre contains 1,010 graves, and allowing four bodies to each grave, the total number of interments up to date would require between 65 and 66 acres. Approximately, therefore, 100 acres of virgin soil still exist, or sufficient for 404,000 bodies. A large number of the graves already used are private, and still available for further interments. The area of private graves is 6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches, 6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 10 inches, 9 feet by 4 feet, and 9 feet by 6 feet 6 inches, with intervals of one foot laterally and of 11 feet 6 inches between rows of graves. Common graves are 7 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches, and intervals of one foot are left between graves and rows of graves. The depth of private graves is usually 10 to 12 feet, and of common graves 12 feet. Six inches of earth are placed between each coffin, and five bodies are buried in each grave. Children are buried in separate common graves. The total number of interments in 1897 was— Private 749 Common 4,010 Total 4,759 (143.) Crystal Palace district, or Elmer's-end, cemetery—Opened 1876. This cemetery is situated at Beckenham, and is bounded on the north-west by a railway, on the north-east by a roadway, on the south-east by a sewage farm, while on the fourth side there are a few houses, but in this part of the ground no interments have taken place. The cemetery is on sloping ground. The soil consists of London clay, which in parts is lcamy in character and very hard. There are superficially-laid drains for carrying off surface water, and one drain at a depth of 11 feet from the surface of the ground which is connected with brick graves. This discharges to a ditch at the lower boundary of the cemetery between it and the land used for a sewage farm. The ground approved for use as a burial place is 35 acres in extent; of this 7 acres are occupied by paths and roads. About 29 acres are yet unburied in. In the ground already used there are more private than common graves, and very few of the former have been filled. The area of private graves is 6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches, 7 feet by 3 feet, or 9 feet by 4 feet and 9 feet by 6 feet 6 inches, with intervals of 6 inches laterally between graves and 1 foot or 14 inches between rows of graves. The first mentioned is the most usual size. Common graves are 6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches with intervals of 9 inches laterally and 1½ feet between rows. The depth of common graves varies between 12 and 16 feet, according to the position. One of the conditions of approval in regard to this cemetery is that between and around each coffin a layer of concrete, 4 inches or more in thickness, shall be placed. This is made by mixing ballast with lias lime. It is also used in private graves. Children are buried in adult common graves. A good many spaces, of an area sufficient for brick graves or vaults, are purchased, but they are used as earth graves. The use of brick graves is decreasing. (144.) East London cemetery—Opened 1872. This cemetery is situated at Plaistow, E. There are no houses near the ground except on the south-east. On the north it is bounded by the embankment of the northern outfall metropolitan sewer, and on the west by land which is unbuilt on. The ground lies low and is flat, and the soil consists of river gravel varying from 10 to 24 feet in depth. The ground is drained at depths of 16 to 20 feet with pipe drains, which are perforated at the upper part. No graves are connected with the drains. The total area of the cemetery is 30 acres, in about 22 acres of which it is stated no burials have yet taken place; while in 3 acres of ground already used graves are still available for further interments. The space of private graves varies, according to position in the cemetery, from 8 feet by 3 feet to 10 feet by 6 feet 6 inches. Common graves are 7 feet by 3 feet in area. Private graves are dug from 8 feet to 14 feet, according to the wishes of the owners, but a greater depth than 9 feet is seldom required. 30 Common graves are dug to the available depth, having regard to the nature of the soil— that is to say, they vary between 10 and 24 feet. The number of bodies buried in each differs in almost every case, being dependent on whether a grave is used principally for adults or children. The latter are usually buried in adult common graves which are nearly full. A large number of common graves is kept open at the same time, and it takes from 3 to 5 weeks as a rule to 611 a grave. One of the conditions of approval in this cemetery is that in all graves each coffin shall be entombed in concrete. This is made by mixing gravel and Portland cement with water, which is then poured into the grave so as to secure a layer of concrete four inches thick between each coffin. Brick graves are but little used. The total number of interments in 1897 was— Private 224 Common 4,454 Total 4,678 (145.) Great Northern cemetery—Opened 1861, under special Act of Parliament. Situated at New Southgate on land adjoining a sewage farm. There are no houses in proximity to the cemetery. The ground is elevated, and the surface has a considerable fall. The soil consists of gravel for a distance of some fifty yards on all sides of the chapel. The remainder of the ground is either loam, clay, sand or stoney. The cemetery is drained at a depth of 16 feet by pipe drains perforated on the upper part, and surrounded by ballast. They are laid underneath the pathways, and discharge to Pymm's brook, which flows at the line of the boundary of lower part of the ground. No graves are connected with the drains, except brick graves when the owners desire it. The total area of the cemetery is 70 acres, and of this about 56 acres are yet unburied in. It is estimated, that on an average of four bodies to a grave, there is space sufficient for 500,000 interments. The 14 acres already used are largely occupied by private graves, most of which are available for re-opening. The number of common interments at this cemetery is decreasing, while interments in purchased graves are increasing. The area of all graves is 9 feet by 4 feet, and private graves are usually required of a depth of 11 feet. Common graves are 12 to 14 feet deep. It takes, on an average, three days to fill a common grave. One foot of earth is left between each coffin. Children are usually buried in the upper part of adult common graves. The number of brick graves required is small. The total interments in 1897 was— Common (including paupers from Shoreditch)1,009 Private 300 Total 1,309 (146.) Islington cemetery—Opened 1854. This cemetery adjoins, and was opened at the same date as, the St. Pancras cemetery, the St. Pancras Burial Board having sold part of the property which was purchased for a burial place for the district of St. Pancras to the parish of St. Mary, Islington. The character of the ground and of the soil is similar to that of the St. Pancras cemetery. A portion of the ground is drained (the chapel portion) at a depth of 18 feet, the drains joining the main drain common to the two cemeteries. The total area is 79 acres. This includes about 39 acres in reserve. The ground which has not yet been buried in, together with that in reserve, amounts approximately to 49 acres. The former consists mostly of areas small in extent, varying from 4 acres downwards. The above total does not include single grave spaces or small plots of ground of two or more grave spaces between graves which have been buried in. These probably would make up 5 acres. In the ground already used there are, it is estimated, some 6,000 private graves of which probably not more than 600 have been filled. At the present rate of interment is is estimated by the superintendent that the cemetery will last for 50 years. The area of private graves is 9 feet by 4 feet, 7 feet 6 inches by 3 feet, or 6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches, with intervals of 1 foot between rows of graves and 3 inches latterly between graves. Common grave spaces are 9 feet by 4 feet. The depth of most private graves is 11 feet. Common graves are dug between 15 to 18 feet. A layer of three inches of earth is placed between each coffin, and children are buried in the upper portion of adult graves. This allows burial within 3 feet of the surface. Brick graves are only infrequently required. The number of interments in 1897 was— Private 336 (graves sold) Common 3,906 Total 4,242 31 (147.) Jews' cemetery, Hendon. This cemetery has only recently been approved and opened for use. Only 27 bodies have so far been buried here. It is situated at Golder's-hill, and is surrounded by fields on all sides. The soil is clay, and it is drained at a depth of 7 feet from the surface, the drain discharging into a filter bed. The total area is 8 acres, but only 4 acres have been enclosed as yet for the purpose of interments. All grave spaces are 6 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 6 inches, intervals of 2 feet laterally and 12 feet between rows of graves being left. The depth of graves is 6 feet, and never more than one body is interred in a grave, which is never again disturbed. (148.) Jews' cemetery, Willesden—Opened 1873. This cemetery is situated at Church-end, Willesden, adjoining the cemetery provided by the Urban District Council for the use of residents in the parish of Willesden. The surface of the ground is flat, and the soil consists of London clay. It is drained at a depth from the surface of 7 feet 6 inches. No graves are connected with the drains except brick graves. As in other Jewish cemeteries where bricks are used in a grave, none are placed on the bottom, and the interval between the coffin and the brickwork is filled in with earth. The drains discharge into the local sewers. The area of ground enclosed for burial purposes is 9 acres. There are also 3 acres in reserve which were not approved for use at the date of application owing to the proximity of houses. Of the enclosed portion, about 6 acres are yet unbnried in. The ground already buried in is never again used, as in the case of other Jewish burial places. The area of all graves is 6 feet G inches by 3 feet 6 inches, with intervals of 1 foot G inches between rows of graves. The depth of graves is 6 feet. The number of interments in 1897 was 141. (149.) Kensington cemetery. Situated at Hanwell, on the north side of the main road leading to Uxbridge. There are houses at no great distance. The ground is flat, and the soil consists of gravel which extends to the greatest depth to which a grave is ever dug. The cemetery is drained at a depth of 12 feet from the surface, the drains being chiefly intended for carrying off surface water. No graves are connected with the drains. The total area of the cemetery is now about 15 acres. It has been enlarged twice since the ground was first opened. Of this total, about 6 acres, made up of good-size areas, have not yet been used. In addition there are spaces between existing graves, and strips of ground along the sides of the entrance avenue and paths which are unburied in. When the cemetery was first opened only one body was buried in each common grave, and this ground, probably about 1½ acres in extent, is now available for use over again. The area of all grave spaces is 7 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 6 inches or 4 feet. Private graves are usually required to be dug to a depth of 9 feet. Common graves are never dug deeper than 12 feet; below this level sub-soil water is reached. The usual number interred in a common grave is 6 adults. Children are either buried in separate graves or at the upper part of adult common graves. The greater number of interments are in common graves, The number of brick graves required is small. The number of burials in 1897 was— Common 650 Private 81 Total 731 (150.) Manor-park cemetery—Opened 1874. Situated at Manor-park, E., the cemetery is bounded on the south by the Great Eastern Railway, and on the north by Wanstead-flats, a row of houses intervening. On the west and east the adjoining land is occupied by houses. The soil consists of river gravel and sand, varying from 10 to 20 feet and upwards in depth. Drains are laid at a depth of 11 to 16 feet from the surface of the ground. The total area of the cemetery is 45 acres, of which about 20 acres are as yet not buried in and 5 acres are only partly used. In the remainder, 15 acres have been used for the purpose of common interments, and. are now of no further use for burial. The area of private graves may be one of the following, namely, 6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches, 7 feet by 3 feet, 9 feet by 4 feet, or 9 feet by 6 feet G inches. The last two are spaces for brick graves and vaults. Common graves are 8 feet by 3 feet. In the case of private graves the depth usually required varies from 12 to 14 feet. Common graves are from 14 to 20 feet deep. Children are sometimes buried in adult common graves, sometimes in separate graves. The period which elapses between the first interment in and the closure of a common grave varies with the depth, but under a special regulation in force as regards this cemetery not more than one interment is to take place in the same common grave on one day. A considerable number of common graves has therefore to be kept ready for use. 32 The demand for brick graves is small. The total interments during 1897 was— Private 200 Common 5,500 Total 5,700 (151.) Marylebone cemetery. The cemetery is situated in East-end-road, East Finchley, on elevated ground, having a considerable slope towards the south-west. The soil consists at the upper part of very dry and hard clay, chalky in character and containing many flints (boulder clay), and at the lower part of gravel and sand. The cemetery is drained at depths varying from 12 to 25 feet. Each grave is connected with the system of drains, which is provided with a flushing tank at the higher level, and is freely ventilated by means of man-holes and of ventilators brought to the surface of the ground. The contents of the drains, after precipitation and filtration through specially-prepared filter beds, discharge into a brook tributary of the river Brent. The total area of the cemetery is 40 acres, and there are quite 20 acres of virgin ground, consisting of separate plots of fair size. The area of all grave spaces is 9 feet by 4 feet. The depths of private graves vary from 10 to 16 feet. Common graves are 15 to 20 feet in depth, eight bodies being buried in a grave of the maximum depth. Children are buried in the upper portion of adult common graves. The number of brick graves required has decreased. The number of interments in 1897 was— Private 186 Common1,666 Total 1,852 (152.) Paddington cemetery—Opened 1855. This cemetery is situated at Kilburn, on the south-west side of Willesden-lane. The land around the cemetery is now, for the most part, occupied by houses, except towards the west. The surface of the ground has a fair fall. The soil consists entirely of London clay. Drains are laid at depths varying from 10 feet at the lower and 25 feet at the higher part of the cemetery. Each brick grave and all common graves are connected with the drains, which join the local sewers. The total area of the cemetery is 25 acres. In this there are 10,370 grave spaces still unused (7,470 in consecrated, 2,900 in unconsecrated ground), in which a total of 61,450 interments may be made. In the ground already used there is still space in the private graves for the interment of 27,621 bodies. The area of private and of common graves is 6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches, with intervals of 6 inches laterally and 1 foot between the head and foot of adjoining graves in the case of common graves, and intervals of 6 inches laterally and 1½ to 2 feet between the head and foot of each in the case of private graves. Private graves are mostly dug 10 feet deep. Common graves are 14 feet and 17 feet deep in alternate rows. The number interred in a common grave is 12 adults in a grave 17 feet deep, and 12 adults and children in the shallower common graves. A special regulation in regard to this cemetery prohibits the use of a common grave more than once on the same day. Brick graves are only a small proportion of the whole number of graves in each year. The number of interments in 1897 was— Private 539 Common 1,416 Total 1,955 1153.) St. George's, Hanover-square, cemetery. This is situated at Hanwell, on the south side of the Uxbridge-road, and almost opposite Kensington cemetery. The surface of the ground is flat, and the soil consists of river gravel. It is drained by a main brick drain 14 to 15 feet from the surface, and by lateral drains joining it. Brick graves are connected with the drains. The area of the cemetery is nearly 24 acres. It has been enlarged once since it was first opened. About 14 acres have not yet been buried in. The virgin ground available will probably allow 150,000 interments of adults and children. A fair proportion of the ground already used is occupied by private graves, of which very few have yet been filled. It has always been the custom here to fill common graves, and the ground so used has thus been rendered unavailable for further use. The area of all graves is 6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches, with an interval of 1 foot between all adjoining graves. In the case of private graves a larger area than this may be purchased. Private graves are mostly 10 to 12 feet in depth. Common graves are dug 15 feet, and 33 six adults are interred in each. Children usually are buried in separate graves, but in most adult conusor graves children are also buried on the top. Children's graves are 5 feet by 2 feet in area. The demand for brick graves is small. The number of interments in 1897 was— Common 1,605 Private 181 Total 1,786 (154.) St. Pancras cemetery—Opened 1854. The cemetery is situated at East Finchley on the east side of the road leading to Barnet, and has no houses in its immediate proximity. Islington cemetery adjoins. The surface of the ground is irregular, and has a considerable fall in different parts. The soil consists of a hard, chalky clay (boulder clay), of gravel extending in parts to a depth of 10 feet, and of sand. The cemetery is not systematically drained. There is one main drain which serves for both Islington and St. Pancras cemeteries, and which discharges into Strawberry-vale brook. Joining this drain are others from different plots of the cemetery which it has been considered necessary to drain. These are laid at a depth of 20 feet, and some of the earth graves are connected with them. In the case of those graves which require draining, ballast and clinker is placed at the bottom, and is also used in filling in each grave. The total area of the cemetery is 105 acres. In addition the vestry possess 3 to 4 acres not enclosed, and about 70 acres which are at present sublet. Of the enclosed land about 70 acres have not yet been buried in. In the ground already used the number of private graves (February, 1899) was 5,418, many of which are still available for re-opening; while in the portion, about 5 acres in extent, where common graves were dug when the cemetery was first opened, only every alternate grave space has been used. There are therefore about 2½ acres of this ground still available. The space of private graves varies. The area of ground sold for enclosure is either 9 feet by 4 feet, 7 feet by 3 feet, or 6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches. Between each of these areas intervals are left of 1 foot laterally and 1½ to 2 feet at head and foot of grave. In the case of common graves an area of 6 feet 8 inches by 2 feet 4 inches is usually excavated, with the following intervals between graves, namely—1 foot at head, 2 feet at each side, and 2 feet at foot of grave. The depth most frequently required in the case of private graves is 10 feet. Common graves are dug 18 feet. The number of bodies interred in each common grave varies with the number of children's coffins which can be interred in the upper part of adult graves. In the Roman Catholic portion of the ground children have separate graves. It is the custom to leave an interval of 6 inches of soil between each coffin, and a layer of 4 feet in all graves between the top coffin and the surface. The demand for brick graves is small. A large number of non-parishioners are buried in this cemetery, especially Roman Catholics. The number of interments in 1897 was— Private 300 Common 5,272 Total 5,572 (155.) Willesden (Urban District Council) cemetery—Opened 1890. This cemetery is situated at Church-end, Willesden, and adjoins a Jewish cemetery. There are no houses at present in the immediate vicinity, but the district is increasing at a considerable rate. The soil consists of London clay, and is drained to a depth of 14 feet. Brick graves are connected with the drains. The total area of the cemetery is 26½ acres, 20 acres of which, at least, are still unburied in. In the portion already used only a small proportion has been used for common graves. All grave spaces are 9 feet by 4 feet. Common graves are dug 16 feet, and seven or eight bodies are interred in each grave, a layer of earth 6 inches deep being placed between each coffin. Children are buried in separate graves. These graves are dug 11 feet deep. The total interments in 1897 were— Private 170 Common 859 Total 1,029 Old Cemetery.—This was an extension of the old churchyard. It is now used up except for some 80 spaces still available for new graves, and private graves which are not yet filled. The soil is clay, and the ground is drained into the local sewers at a depth of 10 feet 6 inches. The area of grave spaces is 9 feet by 4 feet. The number of interments for year ending March, 1898, was 80. [5] 34 (156.) Woking cemetery—Established under special Act of Parliament, 1852. The cemetery is situated at Brookwood, Surrey, some distance to the west of Woking. It adjoins the South-Western railway station at Brookwood, and there is a special railway siding into the ground. The company have made arrangement with the railway company for the conveyance of the dead from London to the cemetery, and possess a private station with suitable waiting rooms for the use of mourners in Westminster-bridge-road. In connection with the station there is also mortuary accommodation, the provision of which enables relatives to have the removal of the body from the dwelling effected at night previous to the day of interment, wheu friends attending the funeral assemble at the station. By this means the disadvantages attendant on the ordinary funeral procession are removed. The cemetery is situated on high ground, and is surrounded by open country. The soil consists of fine sand, forming part of the upper Bagshot beds which extend over a considerable area in this part of Surrey. On excavation it is found to be quite dry for a considerable depth, but it is stated that in parts of the cemetery, before they are drained, moisture is reached at a depth of 6 to 7 feet from the surface. This may extend for a few feet downwards when the ground again becomes dry. The ground is drained at varying depths. At the date of visit a main drain was being laid in a trench excavated to a depth of 10 to 12 feet. The drains discharge into a brook, which eventually joins the river Wey. The total area of the cemetery is as follows—300 acres have been enclosed for use as a cemetery, and there are 200 acres in reserve. In addition the land adjoining, which comprises several hundred acres, is the property of the company, and this could be utilised for burial purposes if required. Of the 500 acres, it is estimated that fully 400 are yet unburied in, while 50 acres of the ground already used are still available for further interments. The area of ground allowed for each grave is in all cases 9 feet by 4 feet. The custom of interring a number of bodies of persons not belonging to the same family in a common grave before it is closed does not exist at this cemetery ; in other words, there are no common graves. The different classes of grave may be divided into those in regard to which the exclusive right of burial in perpetuity is purchased and those in regard to which this right is not purchased, the latter including graves for the burial of paupers. In the case of the former the grave may be any depth which the relatives require. The deepest is 20 feet, and this is quite exceptional; the majority are 8 to 10 feet, but it is stated that the tendency amongst that portion of the community purchasing graves at this cemetery is to purchase plots of ground of an area sufficiently large to allow a separate grave to each person rather than to have a single grave excavated to a depth sufficient for the same number. These private graves, if intended for more than one body, may be re-opened at any date for a second interment. The graves which are not purchased are usually dug to a depth of 6 to 8 feet. In this case also, if a relative desires to bury another member of the same family in the grave, and there be sufficient depth to allow compliance with the requirements of the Act that no coffin is to be within 54 inches of the surface, the grave would be reopened, but this only infrequently occurs, and usually not more than one body is interred in each grave. The company have power under their Act to use this ground again after an interval of 10 years. Up to the present, however, no ground already buried in has been disturbed within 20 years of the last interment. The number of interments during 1897 was 3,534. (157.) Woodgrange cemetery—Opened about 11 years ago. Situated on the south side of Romford-road, near to the point where it is crossed by the Tilbury and Southend Railway. This cemetery, Manor-park and the City of London cemeteries are all in close proximity to each other. The ground is flat, and the soil consists of river gravel and sand. It is stated that it is not drained. Information has not been received as to the area of the ground nor as to what amount is still unbuied in. There is a good proportion of the total area which appears not to have yet been used, but the rate of burial is said to be increasing, and the ground is filling up rapidly. A large number of persons from Upton-park, Leyton, East Ham, and the East-end of London is said to be buried here. The area of private graves is said to be G feet 6' inches by 2 feet 6 inches, with lateral intervals of 1 to 1½ feet and l½ to 2 feet between rows. Common graves are 7 feet by 3 feet, with l½ feet intervals between. The depth of private graves is usually 10 feet, and of common graves 15 feet. It is stated that under the regulations applying to this cemetery the burial of more than six adult bodies in one grave is not allowed. 35 APPENDIX. Information as to the provision for burial which has been made by local authorities for residents in the various sanitary districts, as to the cost of interment, and as to the provision made by the poor law unions for the burial of paupers. (1.) Under the Burial Acts, parish authorities, namely, the vestries, except in the case of parishes within the City of London for which the Commissioners of Sewers are the authority, have the power of determining whether or not a burial ground shall be provided for the use of the parish. Having resolved to do so, the vestries prior to 1894, appointed a burial board for the purpose. Under the Local Government Act, 1894, power is given for the transference to the vestries of the duties and liabilities of the Burial Board, and in several instances in the county this transference has taken place. (2.) The provision of places for the burial of the dead is a matter which is intimately connected with public health administration, and the following account shows the extent to which the powers conferred by the Burial Acts have been made use of by local authorities. (3.) The authority for sanitary purposes is not in all cases the same as the vestry, in several instances two or more vestries being joined for the purpose of sanitary administration, and forming a district board which is the sanitary authority for the whole district. Taking the sanitary authority as the unit, it appears that— (4.) As regards 19 sanitary authorities (including three district boards) within the county, there are 25 places for burial provided by the vestries for the parishes which are comprised in the areas under the jurisdiction of these sanitary authorities. Of these, there are— (a) Situated within the county, 17 burial places. (b) Situated without the county, 8 burial places. (a) 1. Hammersmith. 2. Fulham. 3. Hampstead. 4. Lambeth. 5. Camberwell 6. Lewisham. 7. Plumstead. 8. Wandsworth. 9. Tooting. 10. Streatham. 11. Putney. 12. Eltham. 13. Charlton. 4. Lee. 15. Greenwich. 16. Deptford. 17. Woolwich. Forming Wandsworth sanitary district with Clapham, which contracts with a private cemetery. Lee sanitary district. Greenwich sanitary district. (b). 1. Paddington. 2. Kensington. 3. St. George, Hanover-square. 4. Marylebone. 5. St. Pancras. 6. Islington. 7. Battersea. 8. City of London. Note.—Battersea has two cemeteries— (1) In the county, but now filled and only used for re-opening of private graves. (2) Outside the county. Putney has two cemeteries— (1) Only used for the re-opening of private graves. (2) New cemetery at Kingston Yale. (5.) As regards 24 sanitary districts, burial places have not been provided by the parishes which they comprise. They are the following— (a) Vestries— 1. Chelsea. 2. Westminster. 3. St. James. 4. Stoke Newington. 5. Hackney. 6. St. Martin-in-the-Fields. 7. Clerkenwell. 8. St. Luke. 9. Shoreditch. 10. Bethnal-green. 11. St. George-in-the-East. 12. Mile-end Old-town. 13. St. George-the-Martyr. 14. Newington. 15. Bermondsey. 16. Rotherhithe. (b) District Boards— 1. St. Giles. 2. Strand. 3. Holborn. 4. Whitechapel. 5. Limehouse. 6. Poplar. 7. St. Saviour. 8. St. Olave. (6.) The absence of provision of a burial place by a local authority appears to be a disadvantage to persons residing in the district, inasmuch as they must bury their dead either in a 36 cemetery belonging to a private company or in one provided by some other authority, and in this case the charge for interment for non-parishioners is usually higher than for parishioners. Now, there is probably little doubt that the choice as to a place of burial by the relatives of a deceased person is in a large number of cases much influenced by considerations of proximity—that is to say, a cemetery supplies the neighbourhood in which it is situated, and consequently if a burial place provided by an authority is at a distance, and there should be another nearer, it is possible that many would choose the latter, even though having to pay a higher fee. But whether this be so or not, the residents in a district for which a burial place has been provided have the advantage of using a burial place at a smaller charge than those living in a district for which no provision has been made. Certainly the former may be considered as being justified in having to pay less, since there may be a burial rate levied in the district, although, as a matter of fact, it appears from information supplied to the Council in 1897 as to what was the amount of the burial rate, if any, raised in the different parishes, that out of 22 parishes or local authorities which have provided cemeteries, in 9 only was there a rate for the purposes of the cemetery. (7.) Information obtained for the same year, namely, 1897, as to the burial of paupers shows that in those cases where burial grounds are provided, the various boards of guardians of the unions representing the parishes avail themselves of the provision for the purpose, except in the case of Kensington and St. George, Hanover-square, the paupers from which poor law unions are interred at the Necropolis Cemetery, Woking. With one exception—viz., Marylebone—a fee is paid by the guardians to the burial boards. These fees vary from 3s. 6d. at Paddington cemetery to 21s. at Wandsworth cemetery. Where burial grounds have not been provided, the guardians make use either of the provision made by other parochial bodies or of private cemeteries, thus— 4 boards of guardians avail themselves of the ground provided by the City of London at fees of 12s. 6d. and 13s. 6d. per burial, the fees being in each case bigger than the fees paid by the Board of Guardians of the City itself, viz., 9s. Gd. 8 boards of guardians (including Kensington and St. George, Hanover-square, which have parochial cemeteries) make use of the Necropolis at Woking, at fees varying from 15s. to 30s. 6d.—chiefly 15s. 2 boards of guardians make use of the East London cemetery, Plaistow, Essex, at fees of 13s. and 13s. 6d., and of the Roman Catholic cemetery, Leytonstone. 1 board of guardians avails itself of the Manor-park cemetery at a fee of 13s. 6d. 1 board of guardians makes use of the Great Northern cemetery, Colney-hatch, at a fee of 14s. (8.) In the following table (1) information obtained partly by circular letters addressed by the Council during 1897 to the various burial authorities and boards of guardians, and partly during the present inquiry, is set out showing the actual charges for interment, the position of the cemetery, if one has been provided, and the provision made for burial of paupers. The charges for interment refer only to common graves. Private graves are purchased at varying sums over and above these. In another table (2) information is set out as regards the private cemeteries in the neighbourhood of London which have been visited. C. W. F. Young, Assistant Medical Officer of Health. 37 TABLE 1.—PROVISION FOR BURIAL MADE BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES. TABLE 2—PRIVATE CEMETERIES. 38 39 Table 1. Provision for burial made by local authorities. Sanitary district. Population, 1896. Situation of burial place provided by local authority. Area in acres. Deaths, 1897, in district. Burials, 1897, in cemetery. Charges for common interments. Amount of Burial rate, if any, raised in parish. Poor Law Union corresponding to sanitary district. Paupers buried at Fee for adults. Other cemeteries which are in use and which are situated in district. (Does not include burial places still available for occasional use under special conditions.) Private. Common. Total. Parishioners. Non-parishioners. Within county. Without county. Unconsecrated ground. Consecrated ground. Unconsecrated ground. Consecrated ground. West s. d. s. d. £ s. d £ s. d s. d. Vestry of Paddington 124,506 ... Willesden-lane 25 1,823 539 1,416 1,955 11 6 15 - 1 2 6 2 - — None. Paddington Paddington Cemetery 3 6 „ Kensington 170,465 ... Hanwell 15 2,692 81 650 731 17 6 17 6 Double fees Included with poor rate of which it equals from 0 to a fraction of a penny, but usually cemetery is self-supporting Kensington Necropolis Cemetery 15 - Brompton Cemetery Kensal-green Cemetery „ Hammersmith 104,199 Margravine-road, Fulham ... 18 1,763 ... ... 1,441 12 6 17 6 2 2 — 2 9 6 ½d. Fulham Hammersmith Cemetery Fulham Cemetery 9 – St. Mary's Roman Catholic Cemetery „ Fulham 113,781 Bishop's Palaceroad, Fulham ... 14 2,039 483 1,429 1,912 12 - 17 6 Non-parishioners cannot be buried in common ground. None. 9 – ... „ Chelsea 96,646 None. None. ... 1,713 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Chelsea Necropolis Cemetery, Woking 10 – ... „ St. George, Hanoversquare 79,967 ... Hanwell 24 1,064 181 1,605 1,786 14 - 14 - 1 5 - 1 5 - None. St. George, Hanoversquare Do. 15 — ... Charges are the same as those of Cemetery Company None. „ Westminster 53,234 ... 8 acres of Woking cemetery is reserved by arrangement with cemetery company. ... 1,025 ... ... ... „ St. James 23,050 None. None. ... 391 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... None. Westminster (also includes St. Anne, Soho, part of Strand district) Do. 27 6 ... North. Vestry of Marylebone 141,188 ... East Finchley 40 2,564 186 1,666 1,852 ... ... ... ... Included in poor rate and equal to ¾d. in the £ Marylebone Marylebone Cemetery None. ... „ Hampstead 75,449 Fortune-green ... 20 914 ... ... 821 ... ... Non-parishioners cannot be bu ried here. None. Hampstead Hampstead Cemetery 10 6 ... St. Pancras 240,764 ... East Finchley 105 4,528 300 5,272 5,572 10 – 15 – - 15 – 1 3 6 None. Cemetery is self-supporting St. Pancras St. Pancras Cemetery 5 — Highgate Cemetery „ Islington 336,764 ... East Finchley 79 5,393 336 (graves sold) 3,906 4,242 8 6 12 2 ... ... None. Islington Islington Cemetery 12 2 Jews' Cemetery „ Stoke Newington 33,485 None. None. ... 488 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... None. Hackney Manor-park Cemetery 13 6 Abney-park Cemetery „ Hackney 213,044 None. None. ... 3,586 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... None. Central. District Board of St. Giles 38,237 None. None. ... 698 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... None. St. Giles and (St. George Strand this does not include St. Anne, Soho, a part of the Strand sanitary district.) Necropolis Cemetery, Woking 20 - ... Vestry of St. Martin-in-the-Fields 13,077 None. None. ... 207 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Do. 27 6 & 30 6 if from workhouse at Edmonton ... District Board of the Strand 23,782 None. None. ... 499 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... „ Holborn 31,208 None. None. ... 706 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... None. Holborn City of London Cemetery, Ilford 13 6 ... Vestry of Clerkenwell 66,202 None. None. ... 1,461 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... None. „ St. Luke 41,527 None. None. ... 1,053 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... None. City of London 30,970 ... Ilford 168 641 749 4,010 4,759 17 6 17 6 1 5 – 1 5 – None. City of London Do. 9 6 ... 1st Class 1st Class, plus Incumbent's fees plus Incumbent's fees 8 6 8 6 1 – – 1 – – ... 2nd Class 2nd Class, plus Incumbent's fees plus Incumbent's fees East. Vestry of Shoreditch 122,348 None. None. ... 2,624 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Shoreditch Great Northern Cemetery, New Southgate 14 – ... Bethnal-green 129,162 None. None. ... 2,761 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... None. Bethnal-green E. London Cemetery, Plaistow, Essex 13 – ... 40 41 Table 1. Provision for burial made by local authorities (continued). Sanitary district. Population, 1896. Situation of burial place provided by local authority. Area in acres. Deaths, 1897, in district. Burials, 1897, in cemetery. Charges for common interments. Amount of Burial rate, if any, raised in parish. Poor Law Union corresponding to sanitary district. Paupers buried at Fee for adults. Other cemeteries which are in use and which are situated in district. (Does not include burial places still available for occasional use under special conditions.) Private. Common. Total. Parishioners. Non-parishioners. Within county. Without county. Unconsecrated ground. Consecrated ground. ecrated ground. Consecrated ground. East —Continued). s d. s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. s. d. District Board of Whitechapel 77,717 None. None. ... 1,631 ... ... ... • • • ... ... ... ... Whitechapel City of London Cemetery, Ilford 13 6 ... Vestry of St. George-in-the-East 47,506 None. None. ... 1,259 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... St. George-in the-East E. London Cemetery 13 – ... Roman Catholic Cemetery, Leytonstone 21 – ... District Board of Limehouse 58,305 None. None. ... 1,464 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Stepney City of London Cemetery 12 6 ... Vestry of Mile-end 111,060 None. None. ... 2,091 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Mile-end City of London Cemetery 13 6 Jews' Cemetery Roman Catholic Cemetery, Leytonstone 21 – City and Tower Hamlets Cemetery (partly in Mile-end, partly in Poplar district). District Board of Poplar 169,267 None. None. ... 3,367 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Poplar E. London Cemetery 13 – ... South. District Board of St. Saviour, Southwark 25,365 None. None. ... 612 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... St. Saviour Necropolis Cemetery, Woking 15 - ... Vestry of St. George-the-Martyr 60,278 None. None. ... 1,435 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... „ Newington 120,939 None. None. ... 2,590 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... District Board of St. Olave 11,731 None. None. ... 252 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... St. Olave Do. 15 - ... Vestry of Bermondsey 85,475 None. None. ... 1,884 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... „ Rotherhithe 40,379 None. None. ... 770 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... „ Lambeth 295,033 Tooting ... 41½ 5,272 ... ... 3,750 13s. 6d. ... ... None. Lambeth Lambeth Cemetery 9 6 Norwood Cemetery „ Battersea 165,115 Battersea (closed except for re-openings) Morden 130 2,742 149 1,932 2,081 14 s. 17 s. Raised with poor rate Wandsworth and Clapham Battersea Cemetery 11 – ... District Board of Wandsworth 187,264 Earlsfield ... 34 2,620 160 765 925 £1 1s. ... ... Included in poor rate, equal to ½d. Wandsworth Cemetery 21 – ... 1. Wandsworth parish ... 2. Putney „ ... (a) Kingston-vale ... 13 97 101 198 10s. The fee for non-parishioners is treble that for parishioners. 1½ d. Putney Cemetery 9 10 ... (b) Lower Common (now closed except for re-openings). ... 2¾ 3. Streatham „ ... Garratt-lane ... 26 91 292 383 9s. 6d. ... ... Included in poor rate. Streatham Cemetery 16 – ... 4. Tooting* „ ... *Tooting-church yard ... ... ... ... 123 ... 15 – ... 3 15 - None. Tooting Cemetery 15 – ... 5. Clapham „ ... Contract with Norwood cemetery ... ... ... ... ... 14 s. 14 s. 2/5d. Necropolis Cemetery, Woking 15 — ... Vestry of Camberwell 253,076 East Dulwich ... 32 4,279 477 3,121 3,598 ... 12 6 ... 2 1 6 None. Camberwell Camberwell Cemetery 9 6 Nunhead Cemetery District Board of Greenwich 175,774 Greenwich 1. Greenwich parish ... Shooter's-hill ... 16 3,052 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Greenwich Cemetery 13 ~~ ... 2. Deptford (St. Paul and St Nicholas parishes) ... Ladywell ... 20 109 1,739 1,848 ... ... ... ... ... Deptford Cemetery 13 – ... Vestry of Plumstead 59,252 Wickham-lane ... 32 836 ... ... 657 9 – 15 6 1 7 – 3 16 6 Inc in poor rate, equal to ljd. Woolwich Plumstead Cemetery 14 – ... Local Board of Woolwich 41,314 Plumstead ... ... 738 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Woolwich Cemetery 12 – ... District Board of Lee 38,588 Charlton ... 8 519 104 121 225 7 6 10 6 ... ... None. Charlton Cemetery 10 – ... 1. Charlton parish ... 2. Lee „ ... Hither-green ... 10 ... ... 183 13 – 18 – 1 19 – 2 14 – 2d. Lewisham Lee Cemetery 18 - ... 3. Eltham* „ ... *Eltham church- yard ... ... ... ... ... 9 6 12 6 1 18 - 2 4 - None. Eltham Cemetery 11 2 ... District Board of Lewisham 104,521 Ladywell ... 15 1,362 260 717 977 12s. 6d. £2 4s –d. . None. Lewisham Cemetery 9 6 ... (This includes 3s. for minister's fee.) (This includes 6s. for nister's £2 * In the case of the parishes of Eltham and Tooting the burial places available are not burial grounds which have been provided by the parish authorities under the powers conferred by the Burial Acts. The churchyards in these parishes which were in existence at the date of the passing of the Act are still available for use, though in each case extension of the area of ground has taken place. At the present time these parishes are semi-rural in character and their population is small. 42 Table 2. Private Cemeteries. Cemetery. Situation. Area in acres. Burials in 1897. Charges for common interments.— Adults. Within county. Without county. Private Common. Total. Bromptcn (belonging to the Government) Kensington ... 40 738 none 738 No common interments allowed now. Kensal-green Kensington ... 70 1,089 960 2,049 ... St. Mary's, Koman Catholic Hammersmith ... 23 nearly 332 1,469 1,801 ... Highgate St. Pancras ... 38 1,254 414 1,668 £2 2b. City of London and Tower Hamlets Mile - end Oldtown ... 40 370 2,465 2,835 First class, £1 10s. Second class, £1 5s. Abney-park Stoke Newington ... 33 557 1,014 1,571 £2 Nunhead Camberwell ... 64 931 4,403 5,334 £1 10s. Norwood Lambeth ... 40 1,214 802 2,016 ... Great Northern ... New Southgate 70 300 685 1,309 Third class, £2 7s. and 324 Fourth class, £1 5s. paupers Fifth class, 18s. Chingford Mount ... Chingfcrd 60 395 3,218 3,613 15s. Manor-park ... Manor-park, Ilford 45 200 5,500 5,700 Ordinary, £1. First class, £1 10s. East London ... Plaistow, Essex 30 224 4,454 4,678 Necropolis ... Woking 500 ... ... 3,534 No common interments as at other cemeteries. Fee for interment in unpurchased grave, including conveyance by train from London, £1. Wood grange ... Ilford N o informat ion. No information. Elmer's-end or Crystal Palace district ... Elmer's-end 35 175 270 445 No information. Jewish (Spanish and Portuguese Jews) Mile - end Oldtown ... 4 ... about 60 a year No common interments as at other cemeteries take place in Jewish burial places. Jewish Islington ... 2 ... ... ... This ground is filled, except for a small number of graves which have all been purchased. Jewish ... Hendon 8 ... ... ... Only 27 bodies buried here up to present time. Jewish ... Willesden 9 ... ... 141 ... Erratum. Page 3, at end of section 1 of Part C, transfer the following paragraph— " The above figures refer to the number of spores of bacteria actually present in sewage, and must not be considered as meaning the number of bacteria capable of forming spores." to the end of section 2, page 4, so that it may follow the words—" in one gramme of moist soil are much greater than these." [6349 London County Council. FILTRATION OF CRUDE SEWAGE. Report by the Chemist on the Bacteriological Examination of London Crude Sewage as it is delivered at the Barking and Crossness Outfall works. (Printed, by order of the Main Drainage Committee, 16th June, 1898.) First Report. To the Main Drainage Committee. The Committee will remember that on the 8th of February last the Council sanctioned the appointment of Dr. Houston, as a bacteriologist, to co-operate with me in the experimental treatment of the crude sewage at Crossness by filtration through coke. Pending the construction and maturing of the filter, Dr. Houston has made a study of the bacteriology of the crude sewage, the results of which are summarised in the following report. The information herein contained is preliminary to a bacteriological study of the filter itself and of " the filtrates," or filtered sewage which is discharged as an effluent from the coke filter. The filter has now been in action for about seven weeks, and, as the Committee will have gathered from my periodical chemical reports, is rapidly "maturing," or arriving at a condition when it furnishes its best results. The bacteriological study of the raw sewage is therefore now being followed by the study of the filter and filtrate, and the results thus obtained will be reported in due course. It is believed that the information and the original photomicrographic illustrations which appear in the present report will be of considerable permanent value to the Council's staff at the Outfalls and to many others who are not immediately connected with the Council. The following is a summary of the contents of Dr. Houston's* report— a. Introduction. 3. Number of liquefying bacteria. b. Description of some of the methods used in the bacteriological examination of sewage. 4. Species of micro-organisms. B. Enteritidis Sporogenes (Klein). 1. Collection of samples. B. Coli Communis. 2. Dilution of sewage. Protean forms. 3. Estimation of total number of bacteria. Fluorescent bacteria. 4. „ number of spores of bacteria. B. Fluorescens liquefaciens. 5. „ number of liquefying B. Fluorescens non-liquefaciens. bacteria. Coli group of bacteria. 6. Search for special micro-organisms. B. Mycoides. B. Subtilis. (a) Bacillus Coli Communis. (b) Bacillus Enteritidis Sporogenes (Klein). B. Mesentericus. Sarcinae. (c) Typhoid bacillus. Yeasts. (d) Diphtheria bacillus. Moulds. (e) Staphylococci and streptococci. d. Table I.,showing the results of the bacteriological examination of London crude sewage. c. Summary of the results shown in Table I. 1. Total number of bacteria. e. Photographs of some of the bacteria found in London crude sewage. 2. Number of spores of bacteria. A.—INTRODUCTION. From the end of February to the date of preparing this report (May 9th, 1898), the bacteriological work has consisted in the examination of samples of London crude sewage, obtained from the outfall works at Barking and Crossness. During this time the new filter beds at Barking and Crossness were only in course of construction. They have since been completed and are now being fed with the sewage. There was an advantage in this unavoidable delay, as it was important to gain as accurate a knowledge as possible of the number and kind of bacteria which were present in the raw sewage; and this knowledge should naturally be obtained before the study of the changes brought about by microorganisms in filter beds, specially designed to effect the biological purification of sewage, was commenced. This report, however, is only to be regarded as a preliminary statement of the progress of the work. It would be quite impossible to adequately deal with the bacteriology of sewage as the result of a few months' work. The study of the bacteria in London crude sewage is still receiving close attention, and it will be necessary in the future to carry on a series of comparative experiments with the effluents from the filter beds. * The work was done in the Public Health Laboratory, St. Bartholomew's Hospital. I desire to record my thanks to Dr. Klein for advice and help of the greatest value.—A. C. H. 2 A number of visits were paid to the outfall works at Barking and Crossness during the construction of the filter bed. These visits will be continued in the future from time to time. It is proposed, in the first place, to describe some of the more important methods used in the bacteriological examination of sewage. These need not be repeated in future reports, which will be mainly concerned with the consideration of the results arrived at during the progress of the investigation. After a description of these methods a summary of the results shown in Table I. (pp. 8-10) will be given, and these results will be briefly discussed. The enquiry is not as yet sufficiently advanced to make it advisable to enter more fully into details. In the Table which follows the above summary certain experiments are included which were undertaken under my direction by Mr. E. Brooke Pike, the chemist in charge at the Northern Outfall works. These experiments were carried out with great care and yielded valuable results. A number of micro-photographs illustrating the work accompany the report. These have been specially taken by Dr. Norman. B.—DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE METHODS USED IN THE BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF SEWAGE. 1. Collection of samples. The samples were invariably collected in sterile bottles. The bottles were glass-stoppered, and they were completely filled with the sewage. In every case the cultivations were made on the same day as the samples were collected, and as soon after collection as possible. 2. Dilution of sewage. The microbes in sewage are so numerous that it is necessary to dilute the sewage with a large quantity of sterile water, in order to render their enumeration and study possible. The two most convenient dilutions are 1 in 10 and 1 in 10,000. 3. Total number of bacteria. In cultivating the germs in sewage with the view of estimating their number, gelatine plates should be used. No doubt the rapid liquefaction of the gelatine, which is produced by the liquefying bacteria in sewage, is a decided disadvantage; but if the sewage has been suitably diluted, and if the observations are made day by day, it is not difficult to obtain plates with colonies sufficiently advanced in their growth and sufficiently numerous to allow of their being accurately counted, even when rapidly liquefying species are present. When agar-agar is employed as a nutrient medium for the germs, the numbers counted are too low, and the differentiation of the species of micro-organisms present is more difficult. Further the liquefaction of the gelatine is a positive advantage, inasmuch as it gives some indication of the number of bacteria present in the sewage, which are likely to cause liquefaction of the suspended organic matter. From 0.1 to *1.0 c.e. of a liquid, consisting of crude sewage diluted with 10,000 times its volume of sterile water, is used in these cultivations. As soon as the gelatine film, which has been spread upon the plates has become solid, the plates should be turned upside down and kept in this position, if possible, until the colonies are ready for being counted. Contamination of the films with germs from the air is thus prevented, and difficulties arising from the condensation of water on the lid of the capsule are obviated. The plates are best "incubated" at a definite temperature, which is usually 20° C. If, on the afternoon of one day, it is found that the colonies are nearly, but not quite sufficiently advanced in their growth for being counted, it is advisable to remove the plates to a cool place, as otherwise before the next morning the progressive liquefaction of the gelatine may altogether prevent the colonies from being accurately counted. 4. Spores of bacteria. In estimating the number of spores of bacteria in sewage the best method is to add 1 c.c. of diluted sewage (1:10) to 10 c.c. of melted gelatine in a test tube, heat the mixture to 80° C. for 10 minutes, and then pour it into a Petri's capsule. 5. Liquefying bacteria. The number of liquefying bacteria present in the sewage may be judged to some extent by careful observation of the ordinary gelatine plates. But in these plates many of the colonies are necessarily imbedded in the nutrient medium, and in this case they may not liquefy the gelatine at all, or only liquefy it when they reach the surface as their growth proceeds, or they may display their liquefying power so late that the plate has become overcrowded. It is therefore usually advisable to supplement the ordinary plate cultivations by making "surface" plate cultivations. It is perhaps best for this purpose to use 0.1 c.c. of diluted sewage (1: 10,000). The gelatine is first allowed to become solid in a Petri's capsule, and the diluted sewage is then added and spread over the entire surface with a sterile platinum " spreader " or with a sterilised camel's-hair brush * See No. 2 (Plate I.), which shows a gelatine plate cultivation containing 1 c.c. of diluted Crossness crude sewage (1 : 10,000). 3 6. Search for special micro-organisms. Bacillus Coli Communis. 10 c.c. of sterile gelatine are melted, 0.1 c.c. of 5 per cent. phenol is added, and then the gelatine is poured into a plate and allowed to become quite solid. From 0.l* to 0.5 c.c. of diluted sewage (1:10,000) is next added and is spread over the entire surface with a sterile platinum spreader. Colonies which are typical of Bacillus Coli in their microscopical appearance† and in the manner of their growth ‡ are then selected, and subcultures are made from them in broth for the observation of the diffuse cloudiness and the indol reaction, in litmus milk for observation of acidity and clotting, and in gelatine "shake " for observation of gas production. § Typhoid bacillus, and Diphtheria bacillus. The Typhoid bacillus is to be sought for in surface phenol gelatine and in potato gelatine plates, and the Diphtheria bacillus in ascitic agar plates incubated at 37° C. But the occurrence of these two micro-organisms in sewage in numbers sufficiently great to afford even a faint hope of their isolation must be an event so rare that it is probably a waste of time to specially search for them when more practical and more immediately useful work claims attention. Staphylococci and Streptococci. These are to be looked for in agar cultivations incubated at 37° C. Spores of Bacillus Enteritidis Sporogenes (Klein). Dr. Klein's method for detecting the spores of this bacillus is as follows. A minute quantity of sewage is added to 15 c.c. of freshly prepared sterile milk contained in a test tube. The tube is then heated at 80° C. for ten minutes, cultivated anaerobically by Buchner's method, and incubated at 37° C. In the case of London crude sewage the most suitable dilution is 1 in 100, and of this diluted sewage 1.0, 01, and 0.01 c.c. respectively are added to three of the sterile milk tubes. When B. Enteritidis is present|| the casein is precipitated, the whey remains nearly colourless, and there is a marked development of gas. These changes in the milk commonly take place in less than twentyfour hours. A guinea pig inoculated with 1 c.c. of the whey usually dies in less than twenty-four hours, and presents, on post-mortem examination, appearances which are typical of enteritidis (extensive gangrene, sanguineous exudation full of bacilli, etc.). C.—SUMMARY OF RESULTS SHOWN IN TABLE I. The results of the bacteriological examination of London crude sewage, which are shown in Table I., may be summarised briefly as follows— 1. Total number of bacteria.II The number of micro-organisms present in 1 c.c. of the different samples of sewage varied as follows— Barking crude sewage. 7,260.000, highest number, May 3rd, 1898. Experiment 13. 513,333, lowest number, April 15, 1898. Experiment 6. 3,899,259, average of 19 cultures of 9 samples. Experiments 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13 and 14. Crossness crude sewage. 5,290,000, highest number, March 2nd, 1898. Experiment 4. 2,410,000, lowest number, April 20th, 1898. Experiment 8. 3,526,667, average of 11 cultures of 6 samples. Experiments 1, 3, 4, 8, 11 and 15. Barking sewage contained on an average nearly four million and Crossness three and a half million bacteria per c.c. It is evident that the various substances, such as waste matters from manufactories, which are discharged in large quantities into the London sewers, and yet may be regarded as foreign to sewage, do not inhibit the growth of the sewage bacteria to any marked extent. The above figures refer to the number of spores of bacteria actually present in sewage, and must not be considered as meaning the number of bacteria capable of forming spores. 2. Number of spores of bacteria. The number of spores of bacteria present in 1 c.c. of the different samples of sewage varied as follows— Barking crude sewage. 30,000, highest number, February 23rd, 1898. Experiment 2. 80, lowest number, April 4th, 1898. Experiment 5. 3,899, average of 15 cultures of 9 samples. Experiments 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13 and 14. * See No. 1 (Plate I.). † See No. 6 (Plate I.). ‡ See Nos. 1, 4 and 13 (Plate I.). § See No. 5 (Plate I.). || See No. 14 (Plate I.;. ¶ See No. 2 (Plate I.), as illustrating the number of bacteria in sewage. 4 Although the extreme variation in numbers was wide, a number of samples gave results fairly similar. Thus experiments 6, 7, 9, 10, 12 and 14 yielded the following numbers—263, 290, 400, 470, 120 and 450, of which the mean is 332. Crossness crude sewage. 2,800, highest number, March 2nd, 1898. Experiment 3. 180, lowest number, April 20th, 1898. Experiment 8. 852, average of 5 cultures of 5 samples. Experiments 3, 4, 8, 11 and 15. Excluding the results obtained in experiment 3, experiments 4, 8, 11 and 15 yielded the following results—500, 180, 400 and 380, of which the mean is 365. To what extent the spores are present in the sewage when it is first discharged into the sewers is not known, therefore it cannot be said that there is either an increase or a decrease in their number during the passage of the sewage to the outfalls. It is possible that the original spores germinate into cells in the sewers, but as the struggle for existence between the different species increases, that they again form spores. Some bacteriologists hold that bacteria proceed to sporulation chiefly or solely when the cells have attained their highest development. Others assert that bacteria change from a transitory "growth form" to a "persistent spore form" in order to avoid extinction when the conditions for their growth are unfavourable. Future work will show whether the conditions prevailing in the biological filters at the outfall works lead to an increase or a decrease in the number of spores. As spores are peculiarly resistent to external influences their presence in large numbers in a liquid is to be regarded with some suspicion. Fortunately, however, the great majority of spores of aerobic organisms in sewage belongs to species which are quite harmless. Taking the figures 3,899,259 and 3,526,667 as representing the total number of bacteria, and 332 and 365 as representing the number of spores in one c.c. of average samples of Barking and Crossness sewage respectively, the ratios of spores to bacteria are 1 to 11,744, and 1 to 9,662 respectively. It may be worthy of note that the actual number of spores and the number relatively to the total number of bacteria present in one gramme of moist soil are much greater than these. 3. Liquefying bacteria. The number of liquefying bacteria present in 1 c.c. of the different samples varied as follows— Barking crude sewage. 900,000 highest number, May 4th, 1898. Experiment 14. 220,000 lowest number, April 15th, 1898. Experiment 6. 430,750 average of 9 cultures of 4 samples. Experiments 6, 9, 13 and 14. Crossness crude sewage. 400,000 May 4th, 1898. Experiment 15, was the only record of the exact number. The number of liquefying bacteria found in the sewage was always very great. It was a matter of some difficulty to determine the exact number, since many of the micro-organisms liquefy the gelatine so rapidly as to "flood" a plate before it is ready for counting. It is probable, therefore, that the above estimations of the number of bacteria present which cause liquefication of gelatine are too low. The importance of collecting information as to the number of liquefying bacteria which are present in sewage is considerable, since it has a distinct bearing on the ability of sewage to cause the liquefaction of its own solid or suspended matter. That this liquefaction may be and probably is largely due to putrefactive bacteria is not necessarily a cause for alarm, because the several stages of putrefaction are steps leading in the direction of ultimate purification. It must not be concluded, however, that because a micro-organism liquefies gelatine it will also liquefy all the various and complex kinds of organic matter existing in sewage. But it is safe to assert that a liquid rich in bacteria of varied species, many of which are capable of producing liquefaction of gelatine, is likely also to be rich in ability to dissolve solid or suspended organic matter. It is probable that not only the bacteria generally, but the liquefying bacteria in particular, multiply greatly during the passage of the sewage along the sewers to the outfall. The ratio between the number of liquefying bacteria and the total number of bacteria in Barking and Crossness sewage is 1 to 9 and 1 to 8.8 respectively. Before proceeding to discuss the species of micro-organisms present in London crude sewage, it is to be noted that all the above figures refer to aerobic bacteria. 4. Species of micro-organisms present in London crude sewage. As the work in this direction is still in progress and demands careful and prolonged study, the following description must be looked upon as being only a record of the chief results which have been obtained up to the time of writing this report. The limits of this report prevent any but a passing allusion to the work of others. The subject, however, has been carefully studied by such competent observers, among many others, as Mr. Jordan* ; Sir Henry Roscoe and Mr. Lund†; Mr. J. Parry Laws and Dr. Andrewes‡. That the valuable results which have been obtained are not more complete, is to be attributed to the fact that the precise study of the bacteria in sewage is certainly the work of many years. To a considerable extent the present enquiry covers new ground. * Reports of the State Board of Health of Massachusetts (1888-90, Part II.). † Transactions of the Royal Society, 1892. ‡ Micro-organisms of sewage, 1894, London County Council. Apart from its intrinsic merit as a most valuable contribution to scientific literature, this report is of especial interest as it deals with the bacteriology of London crude sewage. 5 It will be noted that in the remarks contained in column 5 of Table I. (pp. 8-10) attention is repeatedly drawn to the presence of certain particular micro-organisms in the sewage. These notes will now be considered at greater length. * Bacillus Enteritidis Sporogenes. This micro-organism was discovered and described by Dr. Klein ; it appears to be causally related to diarrhoea. Cultivations of B. Enteriditis are extremely virulent; thus, if 1 c.c. of the whey from an anaerobic milk-culture is injected sub-cutaneously into a guinea pig, it usually causes death in less than twenty-four hours. The spores of this microbe are abundant in London crude sewage, as may be seen by referring to table 1, column 5. The results obtained may be summarised as follows:— Barking crude sewage. Exp. 2.—B. Enteritidis was detected in a milk-culture containing 0.1 c.c. of crude sewage, but was absent in milk-cultures containing 0*0001, 00005 and 0.001 c.c. of crude sewage. Exp. 7.— B. Enteritidis was detected in milk-cultures containing TO and 0.1 c.c. of crude sewage, but was absent in milk-cultures containing 0.000l and 0.001 c.c. of crude sewage. Exp. 10.— B. Enteritidis was detected in milk-cultures containing 0.5 and 0.1 c.c. of crude sewage, but was absent in a milk-culture containing 0.01 c.c. of crude sewage. Exp. 14.—B. Enteritidis was detected in milk-cultures containing 0.1, 0.01, and 0.001 c.c. of crude sewage, but was absent in a milk-culture containing 0.0001 c.c. of crude sewage. + In experiment 2, therefore, the number of spores present in 1 c.c. of sewage was at least 10, but less than 1,000; in experiment 7 at least 10, but less than 1,000; in experiment 10 at least 10, but less than 100 ; and in experiment 14 at least 1,000, but less than 10,000. Crossness crude sewage. Exp. 1.—B. Enteritidis was detected in a milk-culture containing 0*1 c.c. of crude sewage; Exp. 3.—And in a milk-culture containing 0.01 c.c. of crude sewage ; Exp. 4.—And in a milk-culture containing 0.01 c.c. of crude sewage ; Exp. 8.+—And in a milk-culture containing 1.0 c.c. of crude sewage, but it was absent in milk-cultures containing 0.0001, 0.001, 0.01, and 0.1 c.c. of crude sewage; Exp. 11.—B. Enteritidis was detected in milk-cultures containing 0.5, 0.1, 0.01 c.c. of crude sewage ; Exp. 15.—And in milk-cultures containing 0.1, 0.01 and 0.001 c.c. of crude sewage, but it was absent in a milk-culture containing 0.0001 c.c. of crude sewage; ‡ In experiment 1 the number of spores present in 1 c.c. of sewage was at least 10 ; in experiment 3, at least 100 ; in experiment 4, at least 100 ; in experiment 8, at least 1, but less than 10; in experiment 11, at least 100; and in experiment 15, at least 1,000, but less than 10,000. If sewage be regarded as the most frequent and dangerous source of the pollution of natural waters; and if, as seems to be extremely probable, it is found that the B. Enteritidis is not present in pure waters; it is obvious from the above results that, apart from the pathogenic character of this anaerobe, we are here dealing with a bacteriological method of detecting contamination with sewage, which excels in delicacy any chemical process known. As the life history of this micro-organism becomes more fully known, the bacteriologist may not improbably be in a position to condemn a water for drinking purposes, by merely considering the results obtained in his examination for this particular organism. Future work will show what the fate of the B. Enteritidis is during the passage of the sewage through the biological filters at the outfall works. No doubt it will be said, and perhaps justly so, that even if the effluents do contain B. Enteritidis this is not necessarily a grave evil in the case of sewage discharged into a tidal river below locks the water of which is not used for drinking purposes, unless, indeed, presence of this organism leads, when associated with a large amount of organic matter, to anaerobic and offensive putrefactive processes in the bed of the stream. § Bacillus Coli Communis. This micro-organism is present in London crude sewage in very great numbers, as the following figures show— Barking crude sewage. Exp. 2.—B. Coli was detected in 0.000025 c.c. of crude sewage. Exp. 7.—Forty colonies typical of B. Coli were counted in a phenol-gelatine plate cultivation containing 0.0001 c.c. of crude sewage. * See Nos. 3 and 14 (Plate I.). Reference may be made to the" Certralblatt fur Bakteriolog. und Parasitenkunde," Band xviii., N. 241, Band xxii., N. 5, 20, 21; and Med. Officer of Health Report, Loc. Gov. Board, 1895-6. † In this experiment the milk was not freshly prepared. If the milk is not fresh and recently sterilised a much larger quantity of sewage has to be added in order to produce the typical Enteritidis change. A later experiment, however, seems to show that it is not the age of the culture which inhibits the growth but the presence of dissolved oxgyen. ‡ In experiments carried out for the Local Government Board by Dr. Klein and myself as regards the number of spores of B. Enteritidis in crude sewage, we obtained results which correspond with the above. Although not yet published, these experiments precede the above in point of time. § See Nos. 1, 4, 5, 6, and 13 (Plate I.). The exact part played by B. Coli Communis in processes which aim at the biological purification of sewage is not known; but the B. Coli Communis, although it does not belong to the class of liquefying bacteria, is certainly capable of decomposing albuminous matter. 6 Exp. 10.—Nine colonies typical of B. Coli were counted in a phenol-gelatine plate cultivation containing 0.000l c.c. of crude sewage; several of these were tested in gelatine " shake " cultures and showed gas formation in 24 hours. Exp. 14.—At least 100,000 colonies of B. Coli were counted per c.c. of crude sewage. Crossness crude sewage. Exp. 1. B. Coli was detected in 0.000025 c.c. of crude sewage. Exp. 3. A large number of colonies of B. Coli were counted in a phenol-gelatine plate cultivation containing 0"01 c.c. of crude sewage. Exp. 4. Same remarks as in experiment 3. Exp. 8. Thirteen colonies typical of B. Coli were counted in a phenol-gelatine plate cultivation containing 0.0001 c.c of crude sewage. Exp. 11. 200,000 germs of B. Coli were found per c.c. of crude sewage. Exp. 15. Same remarks as in experiment 11. The Bacillus Coli Communis is perhaps the most characteristic and is one of the most abundant of the different species of sewage micro-organisms, and sewage is the chief and most dangerous source of pollution of potable waters. The B. Coli Communis is not present, at all events in any numbers, in pure waters, and it is evident from the above figures that sewage may contain at least 100,000 germs of this micro-organism per c.c. It is obvious, then, that there exists a bacteriological method of detecting the pollution of water with minimal quantities of sewage, which is of very great delicacy. In future work this micro-organism will be searched for in the effluent from the filter beds at Barking and Crossness. Its presence in such an effluent may be considered to show the derivation of the liquid from sewage, and hence to indicate the possible presence of other and perhaps dangerous bacteria which have survived the biological processes at work in the filter beds, but does not signify that the liquid is necessarily of a degraded, offensive, and putrescible character. * Protean forms. Although the proteus vulgaris is usually considered as the type of the various protean species to be found in putrefying liquids, it would seem that in the case of London crude sewage the protean form which is most abundant differs from the typical proteus vulgaris in that the cells are shorter and more frequently united in pairs, and also inasmuch as the colonies show less tendency to produce the so-called " swarming islands " on the surface of the gelatine. The term "protean forms" is meant to include all phase forms of protean species and to comprise those protean-like microbes which liquefy the gelatine rapidly, produce gas in gelatine shakecultures, cause the decomposition of albuminous matter, and which microscopically show the presence of actively motile cells, varying in size from very short rods to long threads, and show also involution forms. In all the samples of sewage the protean forms were very abundant, and in experiments 14 and 15 (Barking and Crossness sewage) the number of gas-forming protean bacteria was found to be at least 100,000 per c.c. of sewage. Pasteur considered that putrefaction was a process mainly dependent on the activity of anaerobic bacteria; and that the removal of oxygen, either artificially or by the simultaneous growth of aerobic species, was essential for the production of decomposition of albuminous matter. This view is not generally accepted at the present time, since many aerobic bacteria are known which undoubtedly cause putrefaction; and as our knowledge extends it will probably be found that a very large number of different bacteria, besides those with which we are already familiar, are concerned either directly or indirectly in the process of decomposition of organic matter into its simplest component parts. Many bacteria are facultative anaerobes, and it is probable that these under one set of conditions may produce an aerobic putrefaction and under another set of conditions may give rise to an anaerobic decomposition of organic matter. The subject is a complex one, but it seems certain that putrefaction may be produced by aerobic bacteria under aerobic conditions, by facultative anaerobes under semi-anaerobic or even under anaerobic conditions, and by strictly anaerobic species under strictly anaerobic conditions. No doubt in the case of London sewage, as it flows along the sewers towards the outfalls, there is aerobic putrefaction at work, which is accompanied and followed by a decomposition produced by facultative anaerobes, and later, perhaps, by a putrefactive fermentation brought about by strictly anaerobic species. The volatile products which are evolved during the process of aerobic putrefaction are carbonic acid, ammonia, &c., while the gases which are given off during the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter are hydrogen, marsh gas, sulphuretted hydrogen, &c. Speaking generally, it may be said that there is less nuisance and perhaps less danger attending aerobic than anaerobic putrefaction, and if the two processes are equally efficacious in splitting up the various and complex kinds of organic matter present in the sewage into their elementary and innocuous constituents, then preference must be given to the aerobic process. In the bacteriological "treatment" of sewage, a preliminary increase in the number of bacteria causing liquefaction and decomposition of solid organic matter might well be considered advantageous ; afterwards, however, and associated with a decline in the amount of albuminoid ammonia, one might hope to find a decline in the number of putrefactive bacteria and an increase in the number of nitrifying organisms and in the amount of oxidised nitrogen. * See No. 12 (Plate I.). 7 Fluorescent bacteria. The bacteria causing fluorescence do not appear to be so numerous in London crude sewage as in samples of sewage obtained from other sources. Bacillus Fluorescens liquefaciens, and its varieties. Barking crude sewage. Present in 0.00001 c.c. of crude sewage, (Expt. 2)—Absent in 0.0001 c.c. of crude sewage (Expt. 7)—10,000 per c.c. crude sewage, (Expt. 10)—40,000 per c.c. of crude sewage (Exp. 14). Crossness crude sewage. Absent in 0.00005, 0.0001, and 0.0001 c.c. of crude sewage (Expts. 1, 8and Irrespectively)— 10,000 per c.c. of crude sewage (Expt. 3). Bacillus Fluorescens non-liquefaciens, and its varieties. Barking crude sewage. Absent in 0.00005, 0.000l and 0.0001 c.c. of crude sewage (Expts. 2, 7 and 10, respectively.) Crossness crude sewage. Absent in 0.00005, 0.0001, 0.0001 and 0.0001 c.c. of crude sewage. (Expts. 1, 3, 8 and 11, respectively). Although it was absent in the minute quantities of crude sewage used in the above-named experiments, B. Fluorescens non-liquefaciens is undoubtedly present in both Barking and Crossness sewage, but is apparently not so abundant as in many other polluted liquids. * Coli Group of Bacteria. As well as the true Bacillus Coli Communis there are a very large number of its close allies constantly present in Barking and Crossness sewage. Many of these resemble B. Coli so closely as to be differentiated only by subculture in a variety of media. In an excellent paper on "Coli and its varieties" Mr. M. H. Gordon¶ has shown how great is the number of bacteria in nature which resemble the Bacillus Coli Communis sufficiently closely to suggest a similarity, and which yet can be shown by subculture in various media by the application of certain tests, and by flagella staining, to belong to separate groups, although the majority of them are phase forms of the coli species. † B. Mycoides, ‡ B. Subtilis, and § B. Mesentericus. The spores of these micro-organisms are commonly present in London crude sewage, as the following notes show— Barking sewage. 10 spores of B. Subtilis and 10 of B. Mycoides per c.c. of crude sewage (Exp. 10).—20 spores of B. Mesentericus, 10 of B. Subtilis and 10 of B. Mycoides per c.c. of crude sewage (Exp. 14) in this sample, ||B. Megaterium was also found. Crossness sewage. At least 20 spores of B. Subtilis and 20 of B. Mesentericus in 1 c.c. crude sewage (Exp. 15). A number of other spore-bearing micro-organisms are at present under observation and will probably be described in a further report. Sarcinae, Yeasts and Moulds. These are so rarely met with in cultivations of London crude sewage, that they almost suggest, when present, the possibility of air contamination. In conclusion, it is to be noted that a large number of bacteria, other than those already discussed, have been met with in the cultivations of the different samples of sewage. Many of these belong to species hitherto not described, or described in so incomplete a manner as to make comparison and identification difficult if not impossible. It is hoped that in further reports space may be found for the description of a few of these bacteria. As showing the great number of bacteria of different sorts in sewage it may be stated that in a cultivation of Crossness crude sewage, containing so minute a quantity as 0.00001 c.c. of sewage, there were present at least five distinct species of microorganisms out of a total of 34 colonies. * See No. 1 (Plate I.). † See Nos. 7 and 8 (Plate I.). ‡ See No. 11 (Plate I.). § See No 9 (Plate I.). || See No. 10 (Plate I.). ¶ Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology, June, 1897. 8 D.—TABLE 1, SHOWING THE RESULTS OF THE BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF LONDON CRUDE SEWAGE. The Samples were obtained from the Outfall Works at Barking (9 samples), and at Crossness (6 samples). Experiment. Description of the samples of sewage. Total number of Bacteria in 1 c.c. of crude sewage. Number of spores of Bacteria in 1 c.c. of crude sewage. Number of Bacteria causing liquefaction of the gelatine in 1 c.c. of crude sewage. Remarks. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1 Crossness crude sewage. Feb. 23, 1898. 3,810,000(average of two expts. with 0.0000l and 0.00005 c.c. crude sewage). See remarks column 5. The liquefying colonies were very numerous. Sporea of B. Enteritidis Sporogenes (Klein) present in O'l c.c. crude sewage. Dr. Klein inoculated a guinea pig with 1 c.c. of the whey from an anaerobic milk-culture which showed the typical enteritidis changes, and which had been previously inoculated with O'l c.c. sewage, and then incubated at 36° C. for 24 hours. The guinea pig died in less than 24 hours; the post-mortem appearances were characteristic of enteritidis. No spores of bacteria in 0.000l c.c. crude sewage. Bacillus Coli Communis present in in 0 000025 c.c. crude sewage. Very many of the colonies were protean in character. No colonies of B. Fluorescens liquefaciens or B. Fluorescens non-liquefaciens visible on the third day at 22° C. 2 Barking crude sewage. Feb. 23, 1898. 1,660,000(average of two expts. with 0.000l and 0.00005 c.c. crude sewage). 30,000 (one expt. with 0.000l c.c. sewage). The liquefying colonies were very numerous. Spores of B. Enteritidis Sporogenes present in O'l c.c. crude sewage. Inoculation into a guinea pig produced results similar to those stated in experiment 1, column 5. B. Enteritidis not present in anaerobic milk-cultures containing 0.000l, 0.0005, and 0.001 c.c. crude sewage. B. Coli Communis present in 0.000025 c.c. crude sewage. No colonies of B. Fluorescens nonliquefaciens visible on the third day. The B. Fluorescens-liquefaciens was, however, present. Protean forms numerous. 3 Crossness crude sewage. Mar. 2, 1898. 3,190,000(average of two expts. with 0.0001 and O'OOOOl c.c. crude sewage). 2,800 (one expt. with 0'01 c.c. sewage). The liquefying colonies were very numerous. Spores of B. Enteritidis Sporogenes present in 0.01 c.c. sewage. Numerous colonies of B. Coli Communis in 0.0l c.c. sewage. No colonies of B. Fluorescens nonliquefaciens visible on the third day. B. Fluorescens liquefaciens, 10,000 in 1 c.c. of sewage. Protean forms very numerous. 4 Crossness crude sewage. Mar. 2, 1898. (The sample was collected on the same day as the above but at a different hour.) 5,290,000(average of two expts. with 0.0001 and O'OOOOl c.c. sewage). 500 (one expt. with 0.01 c.c. sewage). The liquefying colonies were very numerous. Spores of B. Enteritidis Sporogenes present in O'Ol c.c. sewage. Numerous colonies of B. Coli Communis in O'Ol c.c. sewage. Many of the colonies were protean in character. 5 Barking crude sewage. Apl. 4, 1898. l,760,000(average of three expts. with O'OOOOl, 000005 and 0.0001 c.c. sewage). 80 (average of two expts. with 0.01 and 0.1 c.c. sewage). The liquefying colonies were very numerous. The colonies were counted on the third and fourth days. 9 TABLE 1—continued. Experiment. Description of the samples of sewage. Total number of Bacteria in 1 c.c. of crude sewage. Number of spores of Bacteria in 1 c.c. of crude sewage. Number of Bacteria causing liquefaction of the gelatine in 1 c.c. of crude sewage. Remarks. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6 Barking crude sewage. Apl. 15, 1898. 513,333 (average of three experiments with 0.0000l, 0.00005, and 0.000l c.c. sewage). 263 (average of three expts. with 0 01, 0 05 and 01 c.c. sewage). 220,000 (average of three expts. with 0.0000l 0.000025 and 0 00005 c.c. sewage). The colonies were counted on the third and fourth days. The ratio between the liquefying bacteria and the total number of micro-organisms was 1 to 2.34. 7 Barking crude sewage. Apl. 20, 1898. 6,920,000 (average of 2 expts. with 0.0001 and and 0.00001 c.c. sewage). 290 (one expt. with 01 c.c. sewage). The liquefying colonies were very numerous. Spores of B. Enteritidis Sporogenes present in 1.0 and O'l c.c. sewage. B. Enteritidis not present in anaerobic milk-cultures containing 0.0001 and 0.001 c.c. sewage. 40 colonies indistinguishable from B. Coli in 0.000l c.c. sewage. No fluorescent colonies visible on the third day. Most of the colonies rapidly liquefying protean forms. 8 Crossness crude sewage. Apl. 20, 1898. 2,410,000 (one expt. with 0.000l c.c. sewage). 180 (one expt. with 0.1 c.c. sewage). The liquefying colonies were very numerous. Spores of B. Enteritidis Sporogenes present in 10 c.c. sewage. Enteri tidis not present in anaerobic milkcultures containing 0.000l, 0.000l, 01, and O'l c.c. sewage. The milk, how. ever, had been prepared some time previous, which appears to inhibit the growth of Enteritidis, as pointed out by Dr. Klein. No fluorescent colonies visible on the third day. Most of the colonies rapidly liquefying protean forms. Thirteen colonies typical of B. Coli counted in a phenol-gelatine plate cultivation containing 0.000l c.c. of crude sewage. 9 Barking crude sewage. Apl. 22, 1898. 4,300,000 (average of two expts. with 0 00001 and 0.00005 c.c. sewage). 400 (one expt. with 001 c.c. sewage). 333,000 (average of three expts with 0.0000l, 0 000025,000005 c.c. sewage). The colonies were counted on the third day. The liquefaction of the gelatine with 0.000l c.c. sewage (column 2) was so rapid that the colonies could not be counted on the third day. The liquefaction of the gelatine with 0.05 and 0.1 c.c. sewage (column 3) was so rapid that the colonies could not be counted on the third day. 10 Barking crude sewage. Apl. 27, 1898. 3,850,000 (average of two expts. with 0 0001 and 0.00001 c.c. sewage). 470 (one expt. with 0.1 c.c. sewage). The liquefying colonies were very numerous. Spores of B. Enteritidis present in 0.5 c. c. and O'l c.c. sewage. Enteritidis not present in anaerobic milkculture containing 0.01 c.c. sewage. 10 spores of B. Mycoides, and 10 of B. Subtilis, in 1 c.c. sewage. B. Fluorescens liquefaciens, 10,000 in 1 c.c. sewage. No colonies visible of B. Fluorescens non-liquefaciens on the third day. 9 colonies indistinguishable from B. Coli Communis in surface phenol-gelatine plate containing 0.0000l c.c. sewage. Several of these were tested in "gelatine shake" cultures, and showed numerous bubbles the next day. Protean forms were very numerous. 11 Crossness crude sewage. Apl. 27, 1898. 3,300,000 (average of two expts. with 0.000l and 0.0000l c.c. crude sewage). 400 (one expt. with O'l c.c. sewage). The liquefying colonies were very numerous. Spores of B. Enteritidis present in 0.5, 0.1, and 0.01 c.c. sewage. B. Coli Communis, 200,000 in 1 c.c. sewage. On the third day no fluorescent colonies in 0.000l c.c. sewage. Colonies chiefly protean in character. 10 TABLE 1—continued. Experiment. Description of the samples of sewage. Total number of Bacteria in 1 c.c. of crude sewage. Number of spores of Bacteria in 1 c.c. of crude sewage. Number of Bacteria causing liquefaction of the gelatine in Remarks. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 12 Barking crude sewage. Apl. '29, 1898. 5,200,000 (one experiment with 0.00001 c.c. sewage). 120 (average of three expts. with 001,0-05, and 0-1 c.c. sewage). Surface gelatine plates containing 0.0000l and 0 000025 c.c. sewage liquefied by third day. Colonies counted third and fourth day. The liquefaction of the gelatine with 0.00005 and 0.000l c.c. sewage (column 2) was so rapid as to prevent the colonies being counted. 13 Barking crude sewage. May 3, 1898. 7,260,000(average of two expts. with 0.0000l and 0.00005 c.c. sewage). 3,020 (average of twoexpts. with 0.0l and 0"05 c.c. sewage). 270,000 (average of two expts. with 0.0000l and 0000025 c.c. sewage). Colonies counted third, fourth, and sixth days. The liquefaction of the gelatine with 0.0001 c.c. sewage (column 2) was so rapid as to prevent the colonies being counted. The culture containing 0.l c.c. sewage (column 3) was liquefied by the second day. 14 Barking crude sewage. May 4, 1898. 3,630,000(average of two expts. with 0.000l and 0.0000l c.c. sewage). 450 (one expt. with 01 c.c. sewage). 900,000 (one expt. with 000001 c.c. sewage). Spores of B. Enteritidis present in O'l, 0.0l and 0.001 c.c. sewage. Enteritidis absent in anaerobic milkculture, containing 0.000l c.c. B. Coli Communis, 100,000 in 1 c.c. sewage. As regards spores: 10 of B. Megaterium, 20 of B. Mesentericus, 10 of B. Mycoides, and 10 of B. Subtilis in 1 c.c. sewage. B. Fluorescens liquefaciens, 40,000 in 1 c.c. sewage. Gas-forming proteus, 100,000 in 1 c.c. sewage. 15 Crossness crude sewage. May 4, 1898. 3,160,000(average of two expts. with 0.000l and 0.00001 c.c. sewage). 380 (one expt. with 01 c.c. sewage). 400,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. sewage). Spores of B. Enteritidis present in 0.l, 0.0l and 0'001 c.c. sewage. Enteritidis absent in anaerobic milk-culture containing 0.0000l c.c. sewage. B. Subtilis and B. Mesentericus, 20 spores of each in 1 c.c. sewage. B. Coli Communis, 200,000 in 1 c.c. sewage. Gas-forming proteus, 100,000 in 1 c.c. sewage. 11 E.—DESCRIPTION OP MICRO-PHOTOGRAPHS ACCOMPANYING THE REPORT. Photo. 1.—Phenol (0.05 %) gelatine surface plate cultivation of diluted Crossness crude sewage.— Natural size. 0.1 c.c. of a 1 in 10,000 dilution of Crossness crude sewage. After two days incubation at 20° C. 75 colonies counted in all. 15 of these were typical of B. Coli Communis, and could not be distinguished from it by a careful naked-eye examination, when magnified with a hand lens, and when viewed under a low power of the microscope. Microscopic preparations looked at under a high power showed similar cells in each case. Possibly some among them showed rods slightly longer and possessed of rather more decided movement than the true B. Coli, yet on the whole the appearances were such as to suggest a similarity and to lead to the belief that the colonies, one and all, were those of B. Coli Communis. Sub-cultures from these colonies (1 to 15 inclusive) were made in "gelatine-shake" for gas production, in litmus milk for acidity and clotting, and in broth for diffuse cloudiness and indol reaction. Gelatine-shake cidtures. 1 to 15 inclusive produced gas in less than 24 hours. Thus it may be said that in this sample of crude sewage there were present, out of a total of 7½ million bacteria, 1,500,000 gas-producing coli-like germs per c.c. On the seventh day (at 20° C.) there was no sign of liquefaction of the gelatine in any of the tubes. Litmus milk cultures. By the sixth day (at 37° C.) 6 and 10 strongly acid (6 commencing clot, 10 solid clot); 9 and 11 practically no change; 2, 8, 12 and 13 slightly acid; 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 14 and 15 very faintly acid. Thus in this sample of crude sewage there were present 1,500,000 gasforming coli-like germs per c.c. Of these 100,000 possessed the power of turning milk strongly acid and of forming a solid clot, 100,000 produced strong acidity and showed delayed clotting ability, 200,000 gave rise to no visible change in milk, 400,000 turned the milk slightly acid, and 700,000 produced traces of acid. Broth cultures. After one day's growth at 37° C. diffuse cloudiness appeared in all the tubes. Later, some of them showed a slight scum on the surface. On the 6th day (at 37° C.) all the tubes were tested for indol reaction and all gave a negative result with the exception of 6, which showed a strong indol reaction. Thus, out of 1,500,000 gas-forming coli-like germs per c.c. of sewage, only 100,000 possessed the power of forming indol. Photo. 2.—Gelatine plate culture of diluted Crossness crude sewage.—Natural size. 1 c.c. of diluted Crossness crude sewage (1 : 10,000). After two days' incubation at 20° C., 402 colonies were counted, this corresponds to 4,020,000 germs per c.c. of sewage. From one of Dr. Klein's negatives. Photo. 3.—Bacillus Enteritidis Sporogenes.—Preparation from serum culture showing spores, x 1,000. It has been already shown that the spores of this anaerobic micro-organism may be present in London crude sewage in numbers varying from 100 to 1,000 per c.c. Photo 4.—Bacillus Coli Communis.—Gelatine plate culture, natural size. Photo. 5.—Bacillus Coli Communis.—" Gelatine shake" cultures, showing numerous gas bubbles after 24 hours' growth at 20° C. Natural size. Photo. 6.—Bacillus Coli Communis.—Preparation from agar cultivation, one day's growth, x 1,000. There are usually more than 100,000 germs of Bacillus Coli Communis per c.c. of London crude sewage. Photo. 7.—Bacillus Mycoides.—A single colony growing in agar, about natural size. In some samples of London crude sewage there are 10 spores of this bacillus present per c.c. Photo. 8.—Bacillus Mycoides.—Impression preparation from a gelatine plate, x 1,000. Photo. 9.—Bacillus Mesentericus.—Preparation from an agar culture showing rods,rods containing spores, and free spores, x 1,000. There are several varieties of Bacillus Mesentericus present in London crude sewage. 10 to 20 spores per c.c. is a number commonly found. Photo. 10.—Bacillus Megaterium.—Preparation showing spores, x 1,000, occasionally found in London crude sewage. Photo. 11.—Bacillus Subtilis.—Preparation from an agar culture, showing spores, x 1,500. The spores of this micro-organism are frequently found in London crude sewage. There may be as many as 10 to 20 spores present per c.c. of sewage. Photo. 12.—Proteus vxdgaris.—Impression preparation from a gelatine cultivation x 1,000. This, although the type of the putrefactive protean species, is not the form most commonly found in London crude sewage. The proteus most abundant in London crude sewage has rods much shorter than the typical proteus vulgaris, and indeed more closely resembles the bacterium termo as originally described by Dujardin, and which at that time was supposed to be the sole cause of putrefaction. Photo. 13.—Bacillus Coli Communis.—Surface colony in gelatine plate, x 8. Photo. 14.—Bacillus Enteritidis Sporogenes.—Growth in anaerobic milk-cultures, about natural size. Prank Clowes, Chemist. 40, Craven-street, W.C., 16</t June, 1898. PLATE I. No.1._PHENOL (005 per cent.) GELATINE SURFACE PLATE CULTIVATION OF DILUTED CROSSNESS CRUDE SEWAGE. NATURAL SIZE. No. 3. BACILLUS ENTERITIDIS SPOROGENES. x 1,000 No. 4.-BACILLUS COLI COMMUNIS GELATINE PLATE CULTURE. NATURAL SIZE. No 7—BACILLUS MYCOIDES COLONY IN AGAR. ABOUT NATURAL SIZE. No, 8.—BACILLUS MYCOIDES. x 1,000 No. 11.—BACILLUS SUBTILIS. x 1,500. No. 12. -PROTEUS VULGARIS, x 1,000. No, 2.—GELATINE PLATE CULTURE OF DILUTED CROSSNESS CRUDE SEWAGE. NATURAL SIZE. No. 5.—BACILLUS COLI COMMUNIS GELATINE SHAKE CULTURES. NATURAL SIZE. No. 6.—BACILLUS COLI COMMUNIS. x 1,000. No. 9.-BACILLUS MESENTERICUS. x 1,000. No. 10.-BACILLUS MEGATERIUM. x 1,000. No. 13.-BACILLUS COLI COMMUNIS COLONY IN GELATINE PLATE. x 8. No. 14. BACILLUS ENTERITIDIS SPOROOENES MILK CULTURES. ABOUT NATURAL SIZE. 1 London Country Council. BACTERIAL TREATMENT OF CRUDE SEWAGE (SECOND REPORT). by Dr. CLOWES and Dr. HOUSTON. EXPERIMENTAL INTERMITTENT TREATMENT OF LONDON CRUDE SEWAGE in THE . COKE-BEDS AT CROSSNESS. presented by PROFESSOR FRANK CLOWES, D.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C. (Chief Chemist to the Council), To the Main Drainage Committee of the Council. JAS. TRUSCOTT AND SON, PRINTERS, SUFFOLK LANE, CANNON STREET, E.C. DIVISION I—CHEMICAL AND GENERAL. by PROFESSOR FRANK CLOWES, D.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C. (Chief Chemist to the Council). CONTENTS. DIVISION I.—CHEMICAL AND GENERAL. Section I.—General Objects and Conclusions. 1. Introductory. 2. Objects of the Coke-bed Experiments. 3. General results obtained. 4. General Conclusions. 5. Advantages of Bacterial over Chemical Treatment. Section II.—Construction and Working of the Coke-beds. 1. Construction and Details of the Coke-beds. 2. Method of Working the Beds, and their present condition. 3. History of each Coke-bed. 4. Experimental proof of the Aeration of the Coke-beds. 5. Variation in the Condition of the Raw Sewage, and its effect upon the Effluent. 6. Comparative purity of clear Sewage, Bacterial Effluent and Chemical Effluent. Section III.—Tables and Curves, showing the Results of the Chemical Examination of the Crude Sewage before and after Treatment in the Coke-beds. Table I.—Results obtained by the Chemical Determination of the Relative Amounts of Dissolved Oxidisable Matter in the Raw Sewage before and after the Bacterial Treatment. Diagram 1.—Curves showing the Variation in the Relative Amount of Dissolved Oxidisable Matter in the Crude and in the Treated Sewage from July, 1898, to February, 1899, and the Rainfall at corresponding times. Also Curves showing the Variation in the Weekly Averages of Percentage Purification effected on the Raw Sewage by the Bacterial Treatment, as measured by the removal of Dissolved Oxidisable Matter. Diagram 2.—Curve showing the Daily Variation in the Percentage Purification effected on the Raw Sewage by the Bacterial Treatment. (The Diagrams will be found immediately following page 41 of the text.) DIVISION I-CHEMICAL. SECTION I. GENERAL OBJECTS AND CONCLUSIONS. 1.—Introductory. After duly considering the different methods of sewage treatment which have been at present proposed (see pages 19, 20), it appeared to me that the intermittent treatment in bacteria coke-beds was the one most likely to be suitable to the conditions at the Council's Northern and Southern Outfalls. Much information has already been laid before the Main Drainage Committee on this method, but chiefly with respect to the results obtained by treating the effluent from the chemical precipitation of London sewage. I considered that further information and experience was desirable before the Committee could be advised to embark on the scheme of treating the whole or even a considerable portion of the raw sewage by this process, which is usually called that of " intermittent filtration through coke-beds." This treatment undoubtedly depends upon the action of bacteria, and the term " filtration," which implies mechanical removal of suspended impurity should be abandoned. On the 15th of February, 1898, the Council approved, on the recommendation of the Main Drainage Committee, my proposal that further experiments should be made on this process of intermittent bacterial treatment in coke-beds, and the chief engineer, Sir Alexander Binnie, willingly accorded his cooperation. Dr. Houston was retained for the purpose of conducting bacteriological investigations during the first year of the experimental work, and a grant was voted by the Council for the purpose of laying down coke-beds on a small scale at Crossness and for maintaining their working. Thanks to the cooperation of Mr. E. J. Beal, the superintendent, and of Mr. J. W. H. Biggs, the assistant chemist at Crossness, these experimental coke-beds have been constructed and worked to my entire satisfaction. In the present report the details of construction and the method of working the coke-beds are explained, and the general results arrived at, after about ten months experience of the filtration, are stated. It appeared to me to be necessary that the crude sewage at the Northern Outfall should be subjected to similar experimental treatment, and a further sum was accordingly voted by the Main Drainage Committee on 21st July, 1898, to equip small experimental coke-beds at the Northern Outfall. The full particulars of these coke-beds and of the results obtained by them, will be included in a special report in due course. The Committee has already received, in a Report which they ordered to be printed and circulated on the 16th June, 1898, the results obtained by Dr. Houston from a bacteriological examination of the crude sewage as it arrives at Crossness and at Barking. In the present Report the results are stated, which were obtained by Dr. Houston from a bacteriological examination of the Crossness sewage after its passage through the coke-beds (pages 17 to 41). It should be explained that the experiments on intermittent treatment in the coke-beds have been carried out by filling the coke-beds with sewage until the coke is just submerged, then allowing the sewage to remain in contact with the coke for several hours, and finally draining the liquid away completely. The coke is then allowed to remain for some time in contact with the air, which fills the interstices of the coke-bed when the liquid has flowed away. This series of processes is repeated at regular intervals. Fuller details as to the construction and working of the coke-beds will be found in Section II. (pages 7 to 10) of this Report. 2.—Objects of the so-called "filtration" experiments. The process of "filtration" of raw sewage, or of its bacterial treatment in coke-beds, is already in use for purifying the sewage of several towns containing a population less numerous than that of London. But in order to render this process adaptable to the treatment of London sewage it appeared to be necessary to use coke-beds which were deeper and which could be more rapidly filled and emptied than those usually employed elsewhere. And further, since London sewage is of a special character, consisting not only of domestic drainage but of manufacturing refuse of the most varied description, it seemed advisable to ascertain by a lengthened experience whether its purification was possible, and whether it could be regularly maintained by the process of bacterial treatment. With these objects in view, coke of fairly large size was employed, and the coke was introduced into tanks of considerable depth so as to enable the layer of coke to be progressively increased in thickness during the progress of the experiments. The main objects of the experiments were to ascertain— (a) The effect of using the coke in fragments about the size of a walnut. (b) The effect of increasing the depth of the layer of coke beyond the usual limit. (c) The extent to which the raw sewage underwent purification by the treatment. (d) The practicability of maintaining the constant passage of raw sewage through the same coke-bed, without deterioration occurring, either in the bed or in the effluent. 6 (e) The amount of sewage which could be treated daily by a superficial unit of the coke- bed. (f) The extent to which the effluent underwent further improvement by its passage through a second similar coke-bed. (g) The suitability of the effluent for maintaining the life of fish. (h) The effect of the treatment on the number and nature of the bacteria which were present in the raw sewage. 3.—General results obtained. It may be stated that the general results obtained from about 10 months' experience of the coke-bed treatment point to the following conclusions— (а) Size of coke. The use of ordinary gas coke, in pieces about the size of walnuts, seems to be attended with the following advantages, as compared with the use of smaller coke. The larger coke enables the bed to hold a larger volume of sewage. The beds now in use had an original capacity for sewage which was nearly equal to the volume of the coke which they contained, in place of only 20 or 30 per cent. of that volume, as is shown by beds containing smaller coke. The use of the larger coke also allows the bed to be more rapidly filled and emptied, and to be more completely emptied and aerated. (б) Depth of coke. Coke-beds similar in character, but differing in depth, have been found to give practically identical purifying effects. At present experience has been obtained only with a four-foot and with a six-foot bed; but I am arranging to extend these depths considerably. [June 21st, 1899—A bed 13 feet in depth has now been working satisfactorily for over nine weeks, and has given a purification approximately equal to that effected by the four-foot bed.] (c) Chemical purification effected by a single treatment. The sewage had been roughly screened before reaching the coke-beds, and it was free from larger matter usually described as "filth," and from coarse sand and heavy mineral road detritus, but it contained all the suspended solid matter usually termed " sludge." During part of the period reported on, the coke-beds received only one charge of this raw sewage daily; but latterly all the coke-beds have received two charges daily of raw Crossness sewage. The coke-beds have removed the whole of the suspended matter or "sludge "frotn the crude sewage; and they have yielded an effluent which occasionally shows a slight turbidity, apparently due in ordinary flow, mainly to the presence of bacteria, but which is increased in storm flow by fine clay and mud. Not only has the suspended matter been removed, but the removal of the dissolved oxidisable and putrescible matters of the raw sewage has been secured to the average extent of 51.3 per cent. by the single process, the four-foot coke-bed giving 52.7 and the primary six-foot coke-bed 49'9 per cent. The effluent thus produced remains free from objectionable odour when it is kept in open or in closed vessels, provided the bacteria present in it are not removed or killed by special subsequent treatment. This effluent could, therefore, produce no offensive smell when it is introduced into the river. (d) Permanency of coke-beds. Since the coke-beds have become regular in their action, neither the effluent nor the coke itself has become foul. The coke which has been in use for upwards of 12 months has shown no general tendency to break up, but the surface of each piece of coke has become partially covered with soft matter which consists mainly of fine particles of coke with some fine sand, woody and vegetable tissue, cotton and woollen fibres and diatoms. Below this thin film the coke is perfectly hard and no sand has penetrated two millimetres below the surface. The sand when examined by polarised light was found not to be granite sand derived from road detritus. The ash in the coke has been reduced in amount by about 25 per cent. during its exposure to sewage in the coke-bed. The capacity of the four-foot coke-bed, has during the period in review been reduced from 50 to 33 per cent, of the whole volume of the bed, and this reduction of capacity appears to be mainly due to fragments of straw and chaff, apparently derived from horse-dung, and to woody-fibre derived from the wear of wood pavements. The treatment of raw sewage by this coke-bed is being continued in order to ascertain whether the decrease in the capacity continues. It has been ascertained that the original capacity is not restored in any degree by prolonged aeration, which proves that the deposit on the coke surface was not organic matter of animal origin; but it has been found that the vegetable tissue, which appears to be the main cause of the decrease in capacity, can be in great measure separated from the raw sewage by a brief period of sedimentation before the sewage is allowed to flow into the coke-bed. (e) Amount of sewage which can be treated daily by a superficial unit of the coke-bed. The volume of sewage which can be passed through the coke-bed per unit of superficial area has not yet attained its maximum, since the depth of the coke-bed is being further increased. Itoriginally amounted to 555,000 gallons per acre per day for the four-foot coke-bed, and to 832,500 gallons per acre per day for the six-foot coke-bed. This represents in each case one filling per day; but, as has been already stated, two fillings have been made successfully for six months, and this corresponds to 1,665,000 gallons per acre per day for the six-foot coke-bed. These amounts are reduced after ten months' working of the coke-beds to 370,000 gallons per acre for a single filling of the four-foot coke-bed, and to 673,400 for the six-foot coke-bed. 7 The maximum possible rate of treatment by each coke-bed is possibly not yet reached. This is an important point to be determined, since the practicability of applying this method to the treatment of the whole of the London sewage depends largely upon the superficial area which will be required for the laying down of the coke-beds. The above daily rate of treatment will naturally be augmented as the depth of the coke-bed is increased, and if the satisfactory working of the 13-foot bed is maintained, it will treat a volume of raw sewage equal to at least three-and-a-half million gallons per day. (f) Secondary treatment. It has been stated that the purification effected by a single treatment of the raw sewage in the coke-beds amounts to a complete removal of the suspended matters, and to a further removal of an average of at least 51.3 per cent. of the dissolved putrescible oxidisable matter. The primary sixfoot coke-bed actually removed on the average 49.9 per cent. of dissolved impurity, and a second process has effected thus far an additional purification of about 19.3 per cent., giving a total average purification of the clarified raw sewage amounting to about 69.2 per cent. (g) Effect of the effluent on fish. Fish die at once when they are placed in the present effluent produced by chemical precipitation, probably because there is a serious deficiency of dissolved oxygen in the impure liquid, and therefore their respiration cannot be maintained. Not only goldfish, but roach, dace and perch have lived for months in the first effluent from the coke-beds, and they apparently would live and thrive in this liquid for an indefinite period. (h) Bacteriological character of the effluent. The results obtained by the bacteriological examination of the effluent by Dr. Houston (see pp. 17 to 41) thus far seem to indicate that the coke treatment does not by any means remove the bacteria from the crude sewage, and indeed does not materially reduce the number. It shows that the presence of many of the bacteria in the effluent is possibly unobjectionable, and is probably necessary for the purpose of completing the purification of the effluent when it has flowed into the river; but it further shows that some of the bacteria whose presence might be looked upon as undesirable in drinking water pass through the coke-beds. 4.—General Conclusions. The above considerations show that neither on chemical, not possibly on bacteriological grounds can any serious objection be raised to the introduction of the effluent from the coke-beds into a portion of the river Thames which is cut off by locks from the Intakes of the Water Companies, and the water from which is not employed for drinking purposes, and cannot be used for drinking on account of its "brackish" nature. The effluent certainly will not cause any deposit upon the river-bed, and will even tend to render the turbid water of the lower river more clear and transparent. At the same time, the liquid discharged from the outfall into the river will be sweet and entirely free from smell. Further, it will carry into the river the bacteria necessary for completing its own purification in contact with the aerated river water, and under no conditions can it therefore become foul after it has mingled with the stream. The effluent will in no way interfere with fish-life in the stream. 5.—Advantages of bacterial over chemical treatment. As compared with the present process of chemical precipitation and sedimentation, the bacterial process presents the following advantages— (a) It requires no chemicals. (b) It produces no offensive sludge, but only a deposit of sand or vegetable tissue which is free from odour. (c) It removes the whole of the suspended matter, instead of only about 80.0 per cent. thereof. (d) It effects the removal of 51.3 per cent. of the dissolved oxidisable and putrescible matter, as compared with the removal of 17 per cent, only, effected by the present chemical treatment. (e) Further, the resultant liquid is entirely free from objectionable smell, and does not become foul when it is kept; it further maintains the life of fish. SECTION II. CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF THE COKE-BEDS. 1.—Construction and details of the coke-beds. For the purposes of the present experiments three brick-lined tanks with brickwork bottoms were specially provided with suitable outlets and with means of charging them with raw sewage by means of a pump and distributing troughs. A series of parallel loose-jointed stoneware drain pipes were laid on the bottom of the tanks, and were connected with suitable outlets; this arrangement served to draw off the effluent. Two of these tanks (A, B) are precisely similar in dimensions, being 22 feet 6 inches long, 10 feet 8 inches wide, and 12 feet deep, and the superficial area of each is 2/363 rd of an acre. The third tank (C) is of less regular shape, but of the same area as (A) and (B), and 6 feet in depth. 8 The Single Coke-bed. One of the tanks (A) was filled to a depth of four feet with coke of uniform size, each fragment being about as large as a walnut. The coke was drawn from the retorts of the gasworks at the Crossness Outfall, and was found by long soaking in water to absorb 15 per cent. of its weight of water. The coke-bed had a sewage capacity of 3,000 gallons, which is equal to 50 per cent. of the volume occupied by the coke and air space ; the volume of the coke amounts to 960 cubic feet. This coke-bed is best described as " The Single Coke-bed," since it has been used for the purpose of subjecting the sewage to a single process only. The Double Coke-bed. The other two tanks (C, B) have been filled to a depth of six feet with precisely similar coke, <vhich was obtained from the South Metropolitan Gasworks. The sewage capacity of each of these tanks is 4,500 gallons. As compared with the single coke-bed, the capacity of the bed is therefore increased in proportion to the increased volume of coke which it contains. Tank C is at a higher level than tank B, and the two coke-beds have been, therefore, easily rendered available for a process of double treatment. The raw sewage has been pumped into tank C, and the effluent from this tank has been allowed to flow by gravitation into tank B and there to undergo a second treatment. In order to avoid confusion the two tanks, C and B, have been called "The Double Coke-bed," and for purposes of distinction tank C has been called the "Primary," and tank B the "Secondary Coke-Bed." It should be stated that the effluent from the Primary Coke-bed was passed through a small laboratory coke-vessel pending the preparation of the Secondary Coke-bed. This laboratory coke-vessel consisted of a glass bottle of 2.75 gallons capacity, which was filled with small coke, and which had a sewage capacity of 1.25 gallons, or about 45 per cent. of that of the coke which it contained. 2.—method of working and present condition of the coke-beds. After each coke-bed has been filled from above to the level of the upper surface of the coke, a process which occupies about seven minutes for the four-foot bed, the sewage remains in contact with the coke for three hours. The liquid is then allowed to slowly flow by gravitation from the bottom of the coke-bed, the process of emptying requiring an hour for the four-foot bed, and the cokebed is then allowed to stand empty for about eight hours in order that the surface of the coke fragments may become aerated. In the case of the secondary coke-bed the aeration process lasted only seven hours. The coke-bed requires to be daily filled and emptied and aerated for about four weeks before it is "matured" and begins to exert its full purifying effect upon the sewage. During this interval the coke is doubtless becoming sown with bacteria, whioh are the active purifying agents, and which are present in large numbers in the raw sewage. This process of "maturing" the coke-bed has usually been carried on during its construction, by constantly treating the coke with sewage while it is being introduced into the tank. In the earlier experiments with the "single coke-bed," when it was being filled twice a day, and before it was fully "matured," the coke-bed evidently became overworked, and accordingly returned a foul effluent, and the coke itself became foul. A fortnight's rest in an empty condition restored its activity, and it has not again given any unsatisfactory results whilst being filled with sewage once a day, and latterly when it has again been filled twice a day. The coke-beds are not filled on Sundays. They have also rested for four consecutive days, including Sunday, during the Whitsun recess, and on July 30th and August 1st, 5th, 6th and 7th, the latter rest being partly due to the necessity of repairing the sewage pump. The coke-beds rested on five other days. With these exceptions the coke-beds have been continuously at work since the date when they were started. The surface of each working coke-bed is broken up to a depth of several inches twice a week by being raked over; this keeps the surface open, and there is no appearance of its becoming clogged. At longer intervals a hole extending from the surface of the coke-bed to the bottom of the tank has been dug in the coke. The whole of the coke has on every occasion been found to be perfectly sweet when it has been thus exposed, and possesses only a slight earthy odour. The surface of the upper portion, to a depth of three or four inches, is not quite bright, but it emits no foul smell. The use of comparatively large pieces of coke in constructing the coke-bed enables the bed to hold a charge of sewage which is considerably greater than that which would fill a similar bed constructed of the smaller coke which was formerly employed. A single daily filling of the coke-bed deals, therefore, with almost as large an amount of sewage as the double daily filling of an ordinary bed. The larger size of the coke will doubtless also admit of the coke-bed being considerably deepened without losing the possibility of fully aiirating the coke. It may be confidently anticipated that the larger coke and greater depth of the bed will thus enable the necessarily large amount of sewage to be dealt with. Since the single coke-bed settled down to a steady rate of working, the number of daily fillings has been increased to two, and the depth of one of the coke-beds has been increased from six to thirteen feet in order to ascertain the possibility of working with deeper coke-beds. 3.—history of each coke-bed. The Single Coke-bed. The single coke-bed was filled with coke to a depth of of 4 ft. It was first charged with sewage on April 22nd, and from that date until June 23rd it was charged with crude sewage twice daily, 9 with the exception of Sundays when it rested entirely, and of Saturdays when it received one filling only. On June 23rd it was decided to give the coke-bed complete rest for a fortnight, since both the bed and the effluent were becoming foul. There is little doubt that this foulness arose from the fact that undue work was thrown upon the bed before it had become "matured." The impurities, therefore, gradually collected in the coke, since they could not be dealt with by the bacteria, which were not established in the bed at that period in sufficient number. Ultimately the impurities accumulated in the bed in such quantity as to render the purification insufficient. There is no doubt that this state is unlikely to arise in a coke-bed which is not overworked in its immature state. After the fortnight's rest, the bed was filled only once a day, and effected satisfactory purification of the crude sewage continuously until November 7th, 1898. During this period the coke-bed was stopped on certain public holidays and for the repair of the sewage pump, these stoppages amounting in all to 12 days. On November 8th, 1898, a commencement was made with two fillings a day, and this was maintained until February 18th, 1899. The results obtained by two fillings have been perfectly satisfactory. Up to the present date (February 18th) this coke-bed has been charged with raw sewage 339 times, and the one layer of coke has dealt with about 847,500 gallons of the raw sewage. The coke-bed has, therefore, removed from the sewage an amount of solid matter which in the dry condition would weigh 32.4 cwt. This solid matter would represent 20.25 tons of sludge, containing 92 per cent. of moisture; or taking one ton of sludge as occupying 33 cubic feet, the sludge removed by the coke-bed would fill the empty coke-bed tank to a depth of 2 feet 9 inches. The Primary Coke-had for the first stage of Double Treatment. This coke-bed was charged with coke somewhat slowly owing to the difficulty of procuring coke at the time when the bed was being constructed. From July 12th to September 1st, the period over which the introduction of coke extended, the coke-bed was, however, frequently charged with crude sewage, in order to carry on the ''maturing" process during the lengthened process of construction. The bed started its regular work in the treatment of crude sewage on September 1st, and from that date until February 18th it has been tilled 213 times. This coke-bed, which is six feet in depth, is now producing an effluent in which the purification is practically the same as that effected by the single coke-bed, which is four feet in depth. It may therefore be inferred that the purification effected by the bed will not be diminished when its depth is still further augmented. The Secondary Coke-bed for the second stage of Double Treatment. The Secondary Coke-bed was "matured" by treatment with sewage during its construction. It received its first charge of raw sewage on June 21st, and was worked until August 31st as a single crude sewage coke-bed. During that period it received 60 fillings of raw sewage, and 244,200 gallons of sewage in all were passed through it. It removed during this period an amount of solid matter from the sewage, which in the dry condition would weigh 935 cwt. This solid matter would be equivalent to 5.85 tons of sludge containing 92 per cent, of moisture. Since September 1st this coke-bed has been used as a secondary bed, and has received the effluent from the primary coke-bed and subjected it to. a second process of treatment. Since the primary effluent is usually clear, this secondary bed has been spared the process of removal of solid suspended matter and has exerted all its purifying action upon the dissolved oxidisable matter. Since the secondary coke-bed has been in operation the use of the small laboratory vessel has been stopped. 4.—Experimental proof of the aeration of the coke-beds. In order to ascertain whether the surface of the fragments of coke became fully aerated throughout the bed between the successive chargings with raw sewage, two vertical pipes were inserted into the bed reaching to the depths of 6 feet and 13 feet respectively. After the sewage had flowed away from the bed samples of air were drawn off from the interspaces between the coke fragments at stated intervals, and the percentage proportions of oxygen and carbonic acid were estimated in this air. The results, which in the case of the 13-foot depth were only of a preliminary character, indicated that even after the air had been in contact with the lower strata of the coke for seventy hours, the air still contained an average of about 75 per cent, of its original oxygen, and the average amount of carbonic acid did not exceed 3 per cent., as is indicated by the tabulated results hplnw This evidently represents an entirely satisfactory condition of aeration of the coke surfaces. Six-foot depth. Thirteen-foot depth. Number of hours since sewage drained off. Percentage of oxygen in air. Percentage of carbonic acid in air. Number of hours since sewage drained off. Percentage of oxygen in air. Percentage of carbonic acid in air. 4 19.8 0.4 22 18.4 1.4 22 9.8 5.8 26.75 14.0 3.8 24.5 10.0 6.0 50.75 14.8 3.0 37 17.8 2.0 51.25 15.3 3.3 40.5 16.8 2.4 70 14.7 0.8 2 10 5.—Variation in the condition of the crude sewage and its effect upon the effluent. The sewage which has been subjected to the above treatment has varied much in character as judged by the amount of suspended matter and of dissolved oxidisable matter which it contains. The effluent derived from this sewage appears as a rule to have undergone a variation corresponding to that of the sewage from which it has been produced. The results of the daily estimations of oxidisable matter in the crude sewage and in the corresponding effluent will be found in the Diagrams and Tables in Section III. In order to render the variations in the degree of purification effected by the coke-beds more evident, the percentage daily purification has been draNvn out as a curve in Diagram I., and in the same diagram the average weekly percentage purification has been represented and the relative amounts of oxidisable matter in the crude sewage and in the effluent also have been treated as curves. It will be understood that the results deal only with the dissolved oxidisable matter in the sewage and in the effluent. The solid suspended matters of the sewage wholly disappear in the coke-bed and are therefore not taken into account. The occasional diminution in the percentage purification does not appear to be due to an acid reaction of the sewage hindering the bacterial action, since the sewage is always either alkaline or neutral in reaction. Neither is this diminished purification apparently to be referred to the presence in the sewage of undue proportions of chemical refuse derived from gas works and chemical works. No evidence has been obtained of interference with the normal action of the coke-bed from such causes. It appears, however, very probable that the purification of the raw sewage is most complete when the sewage is in a fairly dilute and fresh condition. It is of interest to consider the rainfall curve on the diagram in this connection. The least satisfactory results were obtained during the hot dry weather of the recent summer, when the sewage arrived at Crossness in a less dilute condition, owing to the absence of rain, and in an offensive and putrescent condition owing to the high temperature of the air. Even when the sewage was poured upon the coke-beds in this offensive condition, the effluent from the beds was not offensive in character, and it did not become offensive when it was kept. It differed from better effluents only by containing a larger amount of dissolved oxidisable matter. 6.—Relative purity of clear sewage, chemical effluent, coke-bed effluents, and lower RIVER WATER The relative amounts of dissolved putrescible matter in the sewage, the chemical effluent, and the coke-bed effluent, as measured by the oxygen which they absorb from permanganate, are as follows— Impurity of liquid. Percentage purification calculated on raw sewage. Raw sewage ... 3.696 — Chemical effluent 3.070 16.9 Coke-bed effluent (single treatment) 1.799 51.3 Coke-bed effluent (double treatment) 1.137 69.2 River water, high tide 0.350 River water, low tide 0.429 - A comparison of these numbers with one another shows that by substituting a single coke treatment for chemical treatment, the effluent sewage discharged into the river would be completely free from suspended impurity, and would possess a purity, as regards dissolved putrescible matter, of 51*3 as compared with 16*9 in the present effluent, representing an improvement of 67.1 per cent. If discharged after double treatment in the coke-beds the percentage improvement on the chemical effluent would be 75*6. The bacterial action continuing in the river would rapidly bring the purity of such a liquid into a condition equalling that of the river water itself. SECTION III. TABULATION OF RESULTS OF CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE RAW AND THE BACTERIALLY-TREATED SEWAGE. The results of the examination of the sewage before and after its passage through coke-beds were obtained by estimating the amount of dissolved oxidisable matter in the crude sewage, which had been clarified by passage through a paper filter, and then making a similar estimation in the same sewage after it had passed through the coke-bed. The oxidisable matter was estimated by exposing the liquid, which had been clarified by filtration if necessary, to the action of acidified potassium permanganate, in closely stoppered bottles, for four hours at a temperature of 80° Fahr. The oxidisable matters are measured by stating the number of grains of oxygen per gallon of the liquid which are required for their oxidation. When the coke-bed has been filled twice in a day, a sample of each effluent is collected, and these equal samples are mixed for the chemical estimation. This method of estimation is not appreciably affected by the small amount of nitrite which is occasionally present in the effluent. The Table which includes the numerical results will be found on pages 11 to 14. The results obtained will be more readily appreciated by a consideration of the curvo3 in the Diagrams which immediately follows page 41. 11 TABLE I.—SINGLE COKE-BED (4 FEET). Date. Number of times filled daily. Number of grains of oxygen absorbed in 4 hours by one gallon of Raw sewage. Effluent. 1898. May 9 twice 3.412 2.000 „ 10 ,, 3.046 1.864 „ 11 ,, 6.304 3.812 „ 12 ,, 2.381 1.547 „ 13 ,, 2.262 1.190 „ 14 once 5.000 2.619 „ 16 twice 2.941 1.529 „ 17 ,, 4.353 2.588 „ 18 ,, 3.294 1.765 „ 19 ,, 6.941 3.529 „ 20 ,, 3.176 1.412 „ 21 once 6.000 2.706 „ 23 twice 4.128 1.517 „ 24 ,, 3.042 1.639 „ 25 ,, 6.934 2.552 „ 26 ,, 2.170 1.012 „ 27 ,, 3.544 1.531 Rest for Whitsun Holidays. Jane 1 twice 3.725 1.126 „ 2 ,, 4.010 1.549 „ 3 ,, 3.091 1.440 „ 4 once 3.357 1.238 „ 6 twice 4.052 1.549 „ 7 ,, 2.966 1.420 „ 8 ,, 5.701 2.013 „ 9 ,, 3.433 1.119 „ 10 ,, 3.327 1.027 „ 11 once 2.094 .845 „ 13 twice 3.218 1.010 „ 14 ,, 2.195 .857 „ 15 ,, 6.540 2.314 „ 16 ,, 4.041 1.229 „ 17 ,, 2.764 1.324 „ 18 once 3.333 1.018 „ 20 twice 6.445 3.950 „ 21 ,, 4.213 2.124 „ 22 ,, 5.000 2.745 „ 23 once 7.412 4.926 Rest from June 23rd to July 10th. SINGLE AND DOUBLE COKE-BEDS. Date. Number of grains of oxygen absorbed in 4 hours by one gallon of Raw sewage. Effluent from the single coke-bed (4 feet). Effluent from the primary coke-bpd (6 feet). Effluent from the secondary cokebed (6 feet). 1898. July 12 ... ••• ••• 2-948 1-684 1-684 •842 „ 13 3-438 1-458 1-770 •833 „ 14 3-473 1-788 2-000 1052 15 2 000 1-472 1-684 •631 16 3-474 1-472 1-800 •631 „ 18 1-702 •850 •957 •532 „ 19 6-702 2553 3085 1-808 „ 20 3085 1-808 1-480 ■850 „ 21 4-213 1-808 1-916 1143 „ 22 2065 1-260 1-260 •644 „ 25 1-950 1055 •975 •529 „ 26 1-961 1168 1-382 •529 „ 27 3-307 1-371 1-653 •952 „ 28 2-584 1069 1-395 •847 „ 29 7-610 2314 2647 1-666 Rest to August 2nd (Bank Holiday). 12 TABLE I.—SINGLE AND DOUBLE COKE-BEDS—(continued). Date. Number of grains of oxygen absorbed in 4 hours by one gallon of Raw sewage. Effluent from the single coke-bed (4 feet). Effluent from the primary coke-bed (6 feet). Effluent from the secondary cokebed (6 feet). 1898. August 2 4.000 1.900 2.400 1.100 ,, 3 2.500 1.500 1.600 .700 ,, 4 3.131 1.717 15.15 .920 Rest on 5th and 6th while the spindle of the pump was being repaired. August 8 2.166 1.260 1.374 .688 „ 9 3.955 1.636 1.450 .802 „ 10 3.333 1.343 1.343 .644 „ 11 4.207 1.640 1.759 1.077 „ 12 2.841 1.295 1.295 .647 „ 13 1.938 1.052 1.295 .490 „ 15 2.254 1.052 1.176 .555 „ 16 3.211 1.177 1.400 .818 „ 17 3.750 1.875 1.666 .737 „ 18 3.333 1.666 1.666 1.010 „ 19 2.580 1.400 1.284 .752 „ 20 2.010 .982 1.006 .642 „ 22 3.933 1.641 1.422 .834 „ 23 2.746 1.112 1.317 .834 „ 24 4.211 2.000 2.000 1.196 „ 25 2.263 1.118 1.010 .660 „ 25 3.044 1.236 1.010 .749 „ 27 4.400 1.717 1.994 .997 „ 29 2.128 .957 1.383 .745 „ 30 5.319 2.234 2.340 1.064 „ 31 6.809 1.383 1.702 .851 September 1 6.145 3.229 Stopped working ,, 2 3.617 1.064 ,, 3 4.574 1.596 ,, 5 3.191 1.489 1.596 1.064 ,, 6 5.417 2.187 2.708 1.562 ,, 8 4.632 2.211 2.316 1.684 ,, 9 3.152 1.196 1.848 .978 ,, 10 4.516 .860 1.828 1.505 ,, 12 4.193 1.505 2.043 l.505 ,, 13 4.946 2.903 2.258 1.398 ,, 14 5.319 1.915 2.447 1.596 ,, 15 3.830 1.596 1.915 1.170 ,, 16 6.774 3.548 4.086 3.118 ,, 17 3.298 1.277 1.596 1.064 ,, 19 2.234 1.277 1.809 1.170 ,, 20 5.745 1.809 2.234 1.702 ,, 21 4.574 2.128 2.128 1.489 ,, 22 4.239 2.174 1.957 1.304 ,, 23 6.129 1.935 3.222 2.258 ,, 24 4.444 1.778 1.889 .889 ,, 26 2.258 1.183 1.398 1.290 ,, 27 3.936 2.128 2.234 1.489 ,, 28 2.766 No sample 1.915 1.170 ,, 29 2.447 1.489 1.277 1.064 ,, 30 3.617 2.340 2.447 1.809 October 1 3.656 2.558 2.688 1.290 ,, 3 3.391 1.522 1.304 .978 ,,4 3.898 1.809 2.021 1.383 „ 5 3.643 1.848 2.391 1.522 ,, 6 4.255 2.234 2.660 1.702 ,, 7 3.978 2.258 2.366 1.505 ,, 8 3.991 2.340 2.340 1.596 ,, 10 3.391 1.739 1.739 1.196 „ 11 2.447 1.277 1.809 1.170 „ 12 3.587 1.550 1.820 1.196 „ 13 3.763 2.151 2.581 1.720 „ 14 2.717 1.413 1.957 1.304 „ 15 3.696 1.729 2.065 1.304 „ 17 3.696 1.522 2.009 1.196 „ 18 3.614 1.932 1.932 1.136 „ 19 2.909 1.682 1.909 1.341 „ 20 3.522 1.870 2.234 1.596 „ 21 4.830 2.043 2.903 1.505 „ 22 4.146 2.312 2.312 1.525 13 TABLE I.—SINGLE AND DOUBLE COKE-BEDS—(continued). Date. Number of grains of oxygen absorbed in 4 hours by one gallon of Raw sewage. Effluent from the single coke-bed (4 feet). Effluent from the primary coke-bed (6 feet). Effluent from the secondary cokebed (6 feet). 1898. October 24 3.000 1.474 1.368 1.158 ,, 25 2.401 1.263 1.570 1.150 ,, 26 3.460 No sample 2.098 1.260 ,, 27 3.578 1.580 1.684 .947 ,, 28 2.632 1.369 1.684 .947 ,, 29 3.474 1.158 1.789 .842 ,, 31 3.895 .737 .947 .526 November 1 2.948 .842 1.158 .737 ,, 2 4.315 1.158 1.263 .842 ,, 3 4.842 1.369 1.369 .737 ,, 4 4.526 1.789 2.000 1.263 ,, 5 5.148 1.790 1.580 1.158 ,, 7 3.333 1.183 1.075 .860 ,, 8 4.839 1.505 1.505 .968 ,, 9 6.666 1.936 2.258 1.505 ,, 10 4.839 1.936 2.043 1.183 ,, 11 4.839 2.258 2.581 1.390 ,, 12 5.159 2.366 2.150 1.505 ,, 14 3.646 1.770 1.980 1.354 ,, 15 4.167 2.188 2.083 1.770 ,, 16 2.917 1.354 1.354 .938 ,, 17 4.686 2.083 2.400 1.458 ,, 18 3.437 1.770 1.875 1.354 „ 19 4.800 2.397 2.917 2.083 ,, 21 3.510 1.596 1.596 .958 ,, 22 2.979 1.702 1.596 1.064 ,, 23 4.255 1.947 2.280 1.386 „ 24 3.617 1.915 1.809 1.170 ,, 25 4.149 1.702 2.021 1.170 ,, 26 2.766 1.439 1.702 .851 ,, 28 4.639 2.211 2.315 1.702 ,, 29 3.750 2.000 1.902 1.146 ,, 30 3.646 1.042 1.875 .968 December 1 3.298 1.667 1.667 1.354 ,, 2 2.708 1.224 1.354 .842 ,, 3 2.812 1.354 1.579 1.170 ,, 5 2.948 1.580 1.580 1.052 ,, 6 3.789 1.684 1.895 1.370 ,, 7 2.234 1.277 1.170 .851 ,, 8 4.255 2.128 2.021 1.170 ,, 9 3.510 2.021 1.809 1.064 ,, 12 2.234 1.370 1.064 .851 ,, 13 3.043 1.290 1.489 .957 ,, 14 3.778 1.915 2.021 1.489 ,, 15 2.979 1.595 1.595 1.070 ,, 16 4.574 2.447 2.340 1.277 ,, 17 2.842 1.489 1.489 .959 ,, 19 3.750 2.083 2.083 1.354 ,, 20 4.688 2.400 2.701 1.875 ,, 21 2.500 1.500 1.354 .833 ,, 22 3.125 1.701 1.701 .938 ,, 23 3.958 1.876 2.500 1.701 ,, 28 3.474 1.791 1.895 1.052 ,, 29 2.948 1.473 1.791 .947 ,, 30 5.155 3.093 2.800 1.443 ,, 31 3.607 1.752 1.866 1.134 1899. January 2 3.100 1.500 1.600 1.000 „ 3 3.263 1.684 1.684 1.172 „ 4 3.548 1.915 1.753 .968 „ 5 2.553 1.383 1.250 .851 „ 6 4.255 2.426 2.234 1.489 „ 7 2.632 1.489 1.489 1.172 „ 9 2.653 1.328 1.429 1.124 „ 10 4.082 2.245 2.449 1.430 „ 11 3.535 1.818 1.818 1.111 „ 12 3.300 1.700 1.500 1.000 „ 13 2.600 1.300 1.600 .800 „ 14 3.800 2.000 2.100 1.400 „ 16 3.918 2.268 2.062 1.237 14 TABLE I.—SINGLE AND DOUBLE COKE-BEDS—(continued). Date. Number of grains of oxygen absorbed in 4 hours by one gallon of Raw sewage. Effluent from the single coke-bed (4 feet). Effluent from the primary coke-bed (6 feet). Effluent from the secondary cokebed (6 feet). 1899. January 17 2.680 1.444 1.546 1.237 ,, 18 3.390 1.939 1.633 .020 ,, 19 3.082 1.531 1.663 .918 ,, 20 4.286 2.450 2.551 1.429 „ 21 4.000 1.895 2.105 1.158 ,, 23 2.800 1.500 1.600 .900 „ 24 3.232 1.717 1.717 1.111 ,, 25 3.030 1.717 1.616 .888 „ 26 2.500 1.300 1.500 1.000 ,, 27 3.900 1.900 2.200 1.100 ,, 28 3.417 1.935 1.709 1.093 ,, 30 3.093 1.752 1.752 1.031 ,, 31 2.680 1.546 1.444 .928 February 1 4.000 2.152 2.316 1.052 ,,2 2.959 1.633 1.735 .817 ,, 3 4.286 2.450 2.551 1.428 ,, 4 3.542 1.980 1.771 1.146 ,, 6 3.480 1.826 1.938 .965 ,, 7 2.844 1.630 1.630 .933 ,, 9 4.275 2.200 2.436 1.112 ,, 10 3.500 1.800 1.900 1.000 ,, 11 4.061 2.354 2.579 1.270 ,, 13 3.488 1.860 1.959 1.163 ,, 14 4.048 2.326 2.471 1.294 15 3.372 1.647 1.895 1.170 „ 16 2.706 1.512 1.512 .948 ,, 17 2.495 1.163 1.368 .841 ,, 18 3.139 1.647 1.774 1.059 Average 3.696 1.747 1.851 1.137 15 DIVISION II—BACTERIOLOGICAL. BY A. C. HOUSTON, M.B., D.sc. 16 CONTENTS. a.—Introduction. B.—Summary of Contents of First Report. I.—The Biological Treatment of Sewage. II.—General Results obtained (May 9th to August" 9th, 1898).* III.—Summary of Results shewn in Table 1. 1. Total number of Bacteria. 2. Number of Spores of Bacteria. 8. Number of Liquefying Bacteria. 4. Species of Micro-organism3. (a) B. Enteritidis Sporogenes (Klein). (b) B. Coli Communis. (c) Other species of Bacteria. IV. —Tables and Diagrams dealing with the Results of the Bacteriological Examination of the Crude Sewage, of the Effluents from the Coke-beds, of the Effluent from the Chemical Precipitation Works, and of Samples of Thames Water. (The Diagrams will be found following page 41 of the text.) V.—Description of some of the Bacteria found in the Crude Sewage, and in the Effluents from the Coke-beds. 1. B. Coli Communis. 2. B. Mesentericus. Sewage variety E. Sewage variety I. 3. Sewage Proteus. 4. B. Frondosus. 5. B. Fusiformis. 6. B. Subtilissimus. 7. B. Subtilis. Sewage variety A. Sewage variety B. 8. B. Membraneus Patulus. 9. B. Capillareus. VI.—Description of Micro-photographs and Diagrammatic Drawings accompanying the Report.! VII.—Addenda A, B, C, D, E.—Further Bacteriological Records from August 9th to December 31st, 1898. (These Addenda follow Diagram 9 at the end of the Report.) *Since this report was written (August 9th, 1898) circumstances arose delaying its publication for several months. To have brought it up to date would have necessitated rewriting the whole report and reconstructing all the Diagrams and Tables. Under these circumstances it was considered best to incorporate some of the later results in the form of addenda (Add. A, B, C, D, E), so that anyone interested in the progress of the coke-beds might follow their history a stage further. All the results, however, are not given, and it is hoped that in the future an opportunity may present itself of recording the work done since August 9th, 1898, in a more complete form. † The micro-photographs were specially taken by Dr. Albert Norman. I wish to record my thanks to him for the great skill which he has shown in photographing my cultures and microscopic preparations, both for this and for my previous report.—A. C. H. 17 DIVISION II-BACTERIOLOGICAL. RESULTS OF THE BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF CROSSNESS CRUDE SEWAGE AND OF THE EFFLUENTS FROM THE COKE-BEDS. A.—INTRODUCTION. It has been stated (Division I., Section I., Sub-section 2h) that one of the main objects of the experiments vras to ascertain— "The effect of the treatment on the number and nature of the bacteria which were present in the raw sewage." This portion of the Report contains a record of the work which has been done in this direction from May 9th to August 9th, 1898.* It will be readily understood that, notwithstanding the large amount of work which has been carried out in obtaining data for this preliminary statement, the period during which the coke-beds have been in operation is too short to allow of anything in the nature of a final opinion being given as to their efficiency from the view-point of the bacteriologist. What follows then must be regarded as in a sense provisional, although it is probable that many of the results which have been obtained, and some, at all events, of the conclusions that have been arrived at will hold good in future work. In what follows reference will be repeatedly made to the effluent from the 4-foot coke-bed, to the effluent from the 6-foot coke-bed, and also to the effluent from the laboratory coke-vessel. This last is the effluent from the 6-foot coke-bed which has again been treated in the small laboratory vessel at Crossness. A description of the construction and history of these coke-beds, together with all other essential particulars relating to them, will be found in Division I. of this Report (pages 7 to 9). The Committee will remember that they have already received a report dealing with the bacteriology of London crude sewage as it is delivered at the Barking and Crossness Outfall Works.† Before proceeding further it is desirable to give a brief summary of the contents of this first report. B.—SUMMARY OF CONTENTS OF THE FIRST REPORT. Under tlie heading "Description of some of the Methods used in the Bacteriological Examination of Sewage," information was given as to (1) collection of samples; (2) dilution of sewage; the best way of estimating (3) the total number of bacteria; (4) the number of spores of bacteria; (5) the number of liquefying bacteria; and how to search for (6) special micro-organisms such as B. coli, typhoid bacillus, diphtheria bacillus, staphylococci and streptococci, and B. enteritidis sporogenes. Under the heading "Summary of Results shown in Table I.," it was shown that (1) the total number of bacteria in 1 c.c. of Barking crude sewage averaged 3,899,259 (19 cultures of 9 samples), and in 1 c.c. of Crossness crude sewage 3,526,667 (11 cultures of 6 samples); (2) the number of spores of bacteria in 1 c.c. of Barking crude sewage averaged 332 (excluding certain extreme results), and in 1 c.c. of Crossness crude sewage 365 (excluding extreme results), which gives a ratio of spores to total number of bacteria of 1 to 11,744 and 1 to 9,662 respectively; (3) the number of liquefying bacteria in 1 c.c. of Barking crude sewage averaged 430,750, and in 1 c.c. of Crossness crude sewage 400,000, which gives a ratio of liquefying bacteria to total number of bacteria of 1 to 9 and 1 to 8'8 respectively. As regards (6) the species of micro-organisms, it was shown that in Barking and Crossness crude sewage the spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes were present in numbers varying from at least 10 to about 1,000 per c.c., and B. coli was present in numbers usually exceeding 100,000 per c.c. Notes were also given of the occurrence of other bacteria such as proteus-like forms, bacillus fluorescens liquefaciens and non-liquefacient B. mycoides, B. mesentericus, B. subtilis, &c. In Table I. were given the results of the bacteriological examination of 9 samples of Barking and 6 samples of Crossness crude sewage as regards the total number of bacteria, the number of spores of bacteria and the number of liquefying bacteria, and as regards the species of micro-organisms present. A number of micro-photographs illustrating the work accompanied the Report. It was said (page 1, A., First Report) that the Report was only to be regarded as a preliminary statement of the progress of the work. By this it was not meant that the amount of work that had been carried out was of an insignificant character, the contrary was the case, but the subject was one of such a complex nature, and one about which so little is known, that it might well occupy the energies of not one but many workers for a very considerable period of time. Had the work merely covered the ground taken up by earlier observers it would still have been a most desirable thing from a scientific point of view to hare confirmed or modified the results obtained in the past, particularly in an enquiry dealing with a subject which is still in its infancy, namely, the bacteriology of crude sewage. But to a very considerable extent the research covered new ground, as, for example, the determination not only of the presence but of the relative abundance of a number of different micro-organisms, but more particularly of the B. coli and the spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes. B. coli is an example of an aerobe peculiarly abundant in crude sewage, and B. enteritidis sporogenes is an example of a pathogenic anaerobe less abundant, but perhaps more characteristic of sewage. The importance of obtaining records of the number of these germs in raw sewage preparatory to a study of their numbers in the effluents from the coke-beds needs no comment to show its importance. Moreover, such records are highly important from the point of view of the bacterioscopic analysis of drinking water. * At the end of the report will be found further bacteriological records (9th August to 31st December, 1898). in addenda A, B, C, D, B. †Filtration of sewage. Report on the bacteriological examination of London crude sewage. First Report (P. S. King and Son, 2 aud4, Great Smith-street, Westminster, S.W.). [3] 18 I—THE BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF SEWAGE. The term biological, as applied to the treatment of sewage by natural processes, although manifestly convenient, is apt to be misleading. It is meant to denote the endeavour to obtain, under control, results similar to those which are constantly being produced in nature, and to employ processes which have been in operation for unknown ages. The term, however, is misleading because it might give the erroneous impression that sewage does not contain in itself the living organisms which are necessary to effect its decomposition, and that some new discovery had been made by which sewage was artificially treated with foreign bacteria, in order to bring about its destruction. This, however, is not the case. Sewage already contains all the organisms which are necessary for its decomposition and final purification. In order to discover a method of biological treatment all that has to be done is to discover the best and the most practical way of allowing the natural purification by the action of the bacteria to take place without nuisance or danger. In brief, the so-called biological treatment of sewage is neither more nor less than the attempt to imitate nature's own methods of effecting the decomposition and finally the purification of the effete matter of the animal and vegetable kingdom. In this connection the testimony of Duclaux may be quoted:—"Whenever and wherever there is a decomposition of organic matter, whether it be the case of a herb or an oak, of a worm or a whale, the work is exclusively done by infinitely small organisms. They are the important, almost the only, agents of universal hygiene; they clear away more quickly than the dogs of Constantinople or the wild beasts of the desert the remains of all that has had life; they protect the living against the dead. They do more: if there are still living beings, if, since the hundreds of centuries the world has been inhabited, life continues, it is to them we owe it." To describe the steps which have brought our knowledge to such a point that sanitarians now dare to look forward to a possible solution of the problem of sewage disposal would be to outline the history of bacteriology. Here it is permissible only to indicate in a few sentences some of the discoveries which have paved the way towards a scientific knowledge of the true nature of putrefactive processes. One of the most important discoveries of recent times was that made by Schloesing and Muntz in 1877. They proved that nitrification, or the oxidation of ammonia to nitric acid, is due to the vital activity of bacteria, and thus carried a stage further the important discovery by Schwann and Schultze (1839) that micro-organisms are the true agents of decomposition. Later, Winogradsky and others described and isolated, in pure culture, nitrifying organisms. Pasteur, following up the researches of Cagniard and Schwann, demonstrated, in 1857, the relation between lactic, acetic, and butyric fermentations and special organisms. Later, he erroneously assumed that putrefaction was brought about solely by anaerobic bacteria. Since 1857 the science of bacteriology has advanced by leaps and bounds, and increased knowledge of the nature of putrefactive processes has, during the last decade, led to the serious attempt to bring about putrefaction, under control, as a means of disposing of excremental matters. Putrefaction has been called putrid fermentation, but putrefaction is rather to be looked upon as a fermentation which is putrid or otherwise, according to the conditions under which it is conducted and the degree of its completeness. The products of decomposition by so-called putrefaction are of the most varied kind, and there is no doubt that putrefaction is brought about, not by a single germ, but by a large number of different bacteria, some aerobic, others anaerobic. Each one of these germs may produce intermediary products of widely different character, but all of them, perhaps, tend in the direction of finally resolving highly complex organic substances into their simplest component parts. Although the study of fermentation and the proper understanding of the true nature of putrefactive processes are attended with.great difficulties, the aim and object of the biological treatment of sewage is sufficiently plain and simple. In nature the following cycle of transformation takes place:—Dead organic matter decays as the result of the vital activity of bacteria, and ammonia is liberated. The nitrifying organisms bring about the oxidation of the ammonia, first to nitrous and then to nitric acid. These acids by reaction upon the bases, always present, form nitrites and nitrates, and these nourish the living plant. While the nitrogen is undergoing these changes, the carbon of the organic matter is converted into carbonic acid, and the hydrogen mainly into water. To some extent also the nitrogen and hydrogen are liberated in the free gaseous state. Although organic matter is ultimately resolved into innocuous, inorganic substances by these processes, the intermediary products of decomposition, as has been already indicated, may be of a highly complex character. Fortunately, however, these complex substances are for the most part unstable in character and readily oxidisable, and from the practical point of view they may be regarded therefore as the earlier stages leading up to the final purification. Now the organic matters found in sewage are partly in suspension and partly in solution, and sewage contains in itself the necessary living germs for the destruction of both these forms of organic matter. The aim and object of the biological ttreatment of sewage is to render soluble by microbial agencies the solid matters; and to split up by the action of living bacteria both the matter thus dissolved and the organic compounds which were originally in solution, into their simpler elements. In the final process of purification, these substances should undergo oxidation induced by the life "processes of nitrifying organisms, and an effluent should be produced which is free from putrescible matter and contains only inorganic or mineral substances. Of course it will be argued that there is great danger in encouraging the life processes of micro-organisms which are largely derived from the excreta of animals. Such a contention is certainly justifiable. But in this connection it is to be noted in the first place that the biological 19 treatment of sewage is conducted under control; secondly, that the process always gradually secures the destruction of the pabulum on which bacteria feed, and hence leads to their death; thirdly, that the balance of evidence points to the probability that some, at all events, of the pathogenic organisms are crowded out in the struggle for existence in a nutritive medium containing a mixed bacterial flora,* their vitality being weakened or destroyed by the enzymes of the saprophytic species; † fourthly, that while it is true that bacteria produce poisonous substances in their growth, it also is true that their chemical poisons are toxic in proportion to the dose, and, moreover, are highly unstable and readily break down into their elementary and innocuous constituents; and, lastly, that in some cases it may not be necessary to attempt the complete purification of the sewage, the solution of the suspended matters and partial destruction of the putrescible matter in solution being all that is urgently called for, as, for example, where the effluent is of relatively small bulk and is turned into a stream the water of which is not used for domestic purposes (as is the case in the lower Thames) or else when the effluent is to be subsequently treated by land irrigation. It has been said that the processes of putrefaction and nitrification are dependent on the vital activity of bacteria, and that the destruction of the organic matters in sewage can be effected by the life processes of living germs. But it will be asked under what conditions the bacteriological purification of sewage can be best carried out, and whether there is any process known which in point of economy, practicability and freedom from obvious danger compares with the methods ordinarily in use—namely, chemical treatment and land irrigation. These are questions which cannot be fully answered in the present state of our knowledge. As regards the conditions essential to the successful biological treatment of sewage, it may be said at the outset that the presence in the sewage of any substance inimical to microbial life must, if possible, be guarded against. Thus, it is well known that acidity inhibits the growth of bacteria, and that slight alkalinity is a favourable condition. Again, many of the waste products of manufacturing processes are poisonous to bacteria, and in the preliminary treatment of the sewage with certain chemicals it may also be rendered unfit for bacterial life. But whether the sewage is best placed primarily under aerobic or under anaerobic conditions is a question still open to discussion. All, however, are agreed that the final treatment must be aerobic. As regards a comparison between the bacteriological treatment of sewage and its treatment by chemical precipitation or by land irrigation, it may safely be said that even the most powerful advocates of treatment with chemicals or treatment on land are dissatisfied with the general results that have been obtained in the past, and it is a significant fact that the believers in the possibility of the so-called self-purification of sewage are rapidly increasing in numbers. Moreover, the records, which are daily accumulating, of the practical trials of bacterial coke-beds in different parts of the country tend in the direction of demonstrating the possibility of purifying sewage biologically, although the conditions under which such treatment is best carried out are not yet fully known. One point which has been rather lost sight of is that there is probably no bacterial process in practical operation at the present time which is not eminently successful in that it places the sewage in a most favourable state for its final purification by land irrigation, or by other methods. The mere solution of the great mass of the suspended matters by bacterial agencies, which is, perhaps, common to all the different processes at present under trial, is a sufficient vindication of the enormous advantage to be gained by the biological treatment of sewage. And, even when an effluent is excessively foul, it is, perhaps, not wholly justifiable to condemn it in unmeasured terms, because such foulness may possibly be a step, although not of the most direct character, leading towards ultimate purification. The scope of this report permits only of a brief allusion to some of the methods which are in operation for dealing bacteriologically with raw sewage and partially purified effluents. No attempt, however, will be made to describe their respective merits. To the State Board of Health of Massachusetts belongs the honour of having carried out a laborious series of experiments upon the purification of sewage at a time when the whole subject was enshrouded in mystery. The publication of the valuable results of this investigation at once aroused the interest of sanitarians in this country. In 1892 Mr. Scott-Moncrieff introduced his cultivation bacteria-bed. He founded his system on the following well-recognised truths— (1) That bacteria under favourable conditions are capable of indefinite multiplication. (2) That there exist in sewage, bacteria which are capable of peptonizing solid organic matter, or in other words, of preparing it, by a process comparable to that of digestion, for its final disintegration. (3) That in nature the purification of the refuse of the organic world is effected by the life history of these or similar micro-organisms. In this system the crude sewage passes into the bottom of a bed filled with flint, coke and gravel, and fitted with a false bottom. The liquid portion rises through this bed and the suspended matters are held back at the bottom and undergo solution by the action of bacteria. In order to still further improve the quality of the effluent, by oxidation and by the action of micro-organisms, the effluent from this primary bed is afterwards passed down nitrifying channels. Since 1892 Mr. Moncrieff has modified his original plans in a number of important respects. *In this connection reference may be made to certain interesting experiments carried out by Lawes and Andrewes, and published in their joint report to the London County Council on Micro-organisms in Sewage, 1894. † It must be distinctly understood that I do not imply that such organisms as the typhoid bacillus or the cholera vibrio would necessarily lose their vitality, or even suffer a diminution in virulence under the conditions prevailing in a biological filter. In the absence of actual experiments with the particular sewage in question, I am not prepared to say more than that I believe that if these germs did gain access to the sewage they would suffer a diminution in numbers primarily in the sewers, and secondarily in the coke-beds.—A. C. H. 20 While Mr. Moncrieff was engaged in demonstrating the possibility of disposing of sewage by the agency of bacteria, other workers appeared in the field. In particular, Messrs. Adeney and Parry commenced a long series of investigations which has finally resulted in the formation of a company called The Oxygen Sewage Purification Company. This so-called oxygen system of sewage purification possesses three main features of interest, namely— I. The use of crude manganese compounds for the purpose of clarification or precipitation. II. The principle of recovering the chemicals employed for the precipitation. III. The use of nitrate of soda as a substitute for air (and therefore of the coke-bed) for supplying oxygen to the organisms in the manner required by them. Mr. Cameron's system was brought forward in 1895 at Exeter. In this system the sewage is first passed into a closed tank with the object of producing liquefaction of the solid matters by anaerobic bacteria. The effluent from this anaerobic tank is next passed over an aerating weir and thence to a series of coke-beds. The arrangement is such that each bed in turn is filled, remains full for a period, is then emptied, and finally is allowed a rest before being again filled. In 1897 Colonel Ducat introduced his "aerated bacterial self-acting coke-bed." This is a continuous filtration process, the raw sewage falling on the surface of the open bed, the walls of which are made of open drain pipes, and after passing through the body of the bed, which is composed of coarse material at the top and fine at the bottom, finally escapes without having been exposed to any anaerobic treatment. It is unnecessary to describe the system of sewage disposal advocated by Messrs. Dibdin and Thudichum, because the Committee have from time to time received the records of their prolonged investigations. Messrs. Waring and Lowcock, although working on different lines, attempt to bring about the oxidation of the organic matter in their beds by pumping operations. At Davyhulme, near Manchester, an interesting series of experiments have been carried out under the direction of Sir Henry Roscoe with coke, cinder, coal, and sand beds, the treatment of the effluent from the sewage precipitation tanks being in some cases continuous and in others intermittent. II—GENERAL RESULTS OBTAINED AT THE CROSSNESS OUTFALL (May 9th to Aug. 9th, 1898*). Under the above heading are given the chief results which have been obtained from the effluent of the experimental 4-foot coke-bed. The records of the examination of the effluent from the other beds are too small in number to allow of their being included here, but reference is made to them in the body of the report. Total number of Bacteria per c.c. Crude sewage 6,140,000 (average of 10 experiments) 4-foot coke-bed effluent 4,437,500 (average of 8 experiments) Percentage reduction 27.7 Number of Spores of Bacteria per c.c. Crude sewage 407 (average of 10 experiments) 4-foot coke-bed effluent 252 (average of 8 experiments) Percentage reduction . 38 Liquefying Bacteria per c.c. Crude sewage 860,000 (average of 10 experiments) 4-foot coke-bed effluent 762,500 (average of 8 experiments) Percentage reduction 11.3 Spores of B. Enteritidis per c.c. Crude sewage From 10 to 1,000 (usually more than 100) (11 experiments) 4-foot coke-bed effluent Do. Do. (10 experiments) Percentage reduction Practically no reduction B. Coli per c.c. Crude sewage More than 100,000 (10 experiments) 4-foot coke-bed effluent Do. (8 experiments) Percentage reduction Practically no reduction Micro-organisms other than B. Enteritidis and B. Coli. ("In comparing the cultures no distinct difference could be made out, as regards Chdue sewage the species of microbes, between the cultivations made from the crude sewage 4-foot coke-beds effluent and those made from the effuents. The records are not sufficiently extensive to allow of final deductions being drawn. Yet it may be worthy of note that the percentage reduction of spores of bacteria was greater, and the percentage reduction of liquefying bacteria less than the reduction of the total number of micro-organisms. *Some of the later results (Aug. 9th to Deo. 31st, 1898), are given in Addenda A, B, C, D, E. It must however, be understood that the descriptiTe matter in this report deals only with the results up to Aug. 9th. Nevertheless, the general results obtained since then do not differ very widely from those here recorded. 21 It might reasonably be inferred that in the coke-beds there was a relative increase in the liquefying bacteria, and a relative decrease in the number of spores, as a result of the biological treatment of the sewage. It must be admitted that the above results are not satisfactory from the bacteriological point of view, particularly when it is remembered that an effluent ought to be judged, not only by the percentage amount of purification effected, but also by the actual state it is in. Yet it is to be considered that these results assume a different complexion when viewed side by side with the chemical data. It has been shown in Division I. of this report that the percentage purification, as judged by the dissolved oxidisable matter removed by the treatment, was on an average 51.3 per cent., and that the suspended matter was entirely removed. It has been stated that the results thus obtained surpass considerably those yielded by chemical treatment and appear to justify the claims put forward by the supporters of the biological treatment of sewage, especially since, so far as can be seen, no nuisance or danger arises as a result of the treatment. In the body of the report a number of reasons are given, showing that it is unwise in the present state of our knowledge to recklessly condemn an effluent on bacteriological ground alone, without full knowledge of all the requirements of the case. In the attempt to treat sewage on biological lines it is to be noted that the solution of the suspended matter and even the partial destruction of putrescible matters by microbial agencies afford sufficient ground for justifying the process, at all events as a preliminary measure. Whether this preliminary treatment is to be supplemented by further treatment, either by passage through other coke-beds, or by land irrigation or by any other method, is a matter largely dependent on circumstances. In the present case there are practical points which first of all demand consideration, and although it may be most desirable to obtain an effluent chemically pure and bacteriologically above suspicion of danger it is to be thought of that an effluent not altogether satisfactory in one or other, or even in both, of these respects may yet fulfil all necessary requirements without passing out of the range of practicability. In certain cases it may be imperative to obtain an effluent bacteriologically sound, but it does not follow that a similar result is urgently called for in other cases, as, for example, where an effluent is turned into a watercourse which is not used for drinking purposes, and which already may contain practically all the bacteria that are found in sewage. It might reasonably be argued that where an effluent is turned into a river already grossly polluted and below the lowest level of "intake" for waterworks purposes, that the chemical state of such effluent was (from the practical point of view, at all events) of possibly even greater importance than the bacteriological. Some such state of things pertains in the case of London sewage and the river Thames. Here the initial consideration is to avoid fouling the river with putrescible matters to such an extent as to constitute a grave public nuisance. From this point of view it is evident that an effluent rich in putrescible matter is not permissible, but it is not as certain that an effluent rich in bacteria is equally to be condemned on practical grounds. In conclusion, it must not be considered from what has been said that any attempt is made to minimise the importance of the bacteriological state of the effluent, or to disguise the true significance of the results that have been obtained. No doubt the question will eventually have to be faced— Are the advantages gained by chemical purification sufficiently great to outweigh the possible danger arising from the discharge of an effluent bacteriologically unsound into the river Thames ? That the water itself of the Thames is in an unsatisfactory state from the bacteriological point of view may be deduced from the results shown in Table 2. This table also shows that the effluents from the Barking and Crossness precipitation-tanks are no better, if indeed they are not worse, than average samples of the raw sewage. III.—SUMMARY OF RESULTS* SHOWN IN TABLE I. The results are those derived from the bacteriological examination of Crossness crude sewage, and of the effluents respectively from the 4-foot coke-bed, from the 6-foot coke-bed, and from the laboratory coke-vessel (see pages 28 to 31). 1.— Total number of bacteria in 1 c.c. (table i., col. 2). 1898. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from 4-foot bed. Effluent from 6-foot bed.###] May 11 3,930,000 (expt. 1) 4,800,000 (expt. 2) „ 18 3,670,000 ( „ 3) 4,100,000 ( „ 4) ... ... „ 25 6,400,000 ( „ 5) 6,100,000 ( „ 6) ... June 9 6,500,000 ( „ 7) 1,200,000 ( „ 8) ... „ 15 4.000,000 ( „ 9) 5,300,000 ( „ 10) ... ... „ 22 9,100,000 ( „ 11) 3,000,000 ( „ 12) ... July 20 12,800,000 ( „ 15) 9,200,000 ( „ 16) ... ... „ 27 7,200,000 ( „ 19) ... ... 6,600.000 (expts) August 4 4,200,000 ( „ 23) 1,800,000 ( „ 24) ... ... ,, 9 3,600,000 ( „ 27) ... 1,700,000 ( „ 28) Highest number 12,800,000 ( „ 15) 9,200,000 ( „ 16) 6,600,000 ( „ 20) Lowest „ 3,600,000 ( „ 27) 1,200,000 ( „ 8) 1,700,000 ( „ 28) Average 6,140,000 (av. of 10 expts.) 4,437,500 (av. of 8 expts.) 4,150,000 (av. of 2 expts.) These results are shown in graphic form in Diagram 3. *I desire to record my thanks to Dr. Klein for advice and help of the greatest value.—A. O. H. 22 It will be noted that in these comparative experiments the total number of bacteria in the crude sewage usually exceeded those found in the effluents from the coke-beds. On three separate occasions, however, the effluent from the 4-foot coke-bed contained more organisms than the crude sewage, namely, expts. 2, 4, and 10, as compared with expts. 1, 3, and 9. In round numbers the averages were over six million, over four million, and over four million in the crude sewage, the effluent from the 4-foot bed, and the effluent from the 6-foot bed respectively. The percentage reduction of bacteria was on an average 27-7 in the case of the 4-foot bed effluent and 32.4 in the case of the 6-foot coke-bed effluent. Although the percentage reduction in the total number of bacteria is fairly satisfactory, it must be conceded that the average number of microbes left in the effluent is very large, namely, 4,437,500 in the case of the 4-foot coke-bed, and 4,150,000 in the case of the 6-foot coke-bed. It is probable that the conditions prevailing in the coke-beds may have been satisfactory as regards the solution of suspended organic matter and even as regards the partial destruction of dissolved organic matter, and yet have fallen short of leading to active nitrification and total purification. In the Massachussets experiments, when the reduction in the amount of organic matter was satisfactory and nitrification was in active progress, the total number of bacteria suffered a marked diminution. In brief, it may be, that the coke-beds were highly efficient from the point of view of solution of suspended organic matter and partial destruction of dissolved and offensive substances, and as a preliminary measure tending in the direction of complete disintegration and ultimate purification of the crude sewage, but that they were unable to bring about the complete resolution of the organic matter; if this were the case, sufficient pabulum may have been left in the effluent to allow of the continued growth and multiplication of the sewage bacteria. Indeed, so long as organic matter in an assimilable form remains in the effluent, multiplication of existing micro-organisms may be expected to take place until the self injurious products of these bacteria, or a lack of nutritive material, or some other conditions adverse to microbial life lead to their destruction or to a cessation of their powers of multiplication. The presence of bacteria in enormous numbers in an effluent does not perhaps necessarily imply that the effluent is of a degraded character and highly putrescible ; it may only mean that the liquid has passed through a previous stage of putrefaction, preparatory to its purification, in which case the danger so far as nuisance is concerned may be regarded as potential and not actual. It is as certain on the one hand that the addition of an infinite number of bacteria to a pure liquid, would be followed by a decrease in their number owing to the lack of nutritive material, as it is on the other hand that the removal of all the bacteria from a foul liquid would be a useless precaution, since Nature has always at her command a host of micro-organisms ready to attack the effete matter of the vegetable and animal kingdom, and effect directly or indirectly its purification. Nevertheless, a liquid swarming with living bacteria is usually a liquid still undergoing putrefaction, and is likely also to contain germs of a harmful nature. It may be worthy of note that out of the sixteen samples of Crossness and the nine samples of Barking crude sewage examined during a period extending from February to August, 1898, on no occasion was it found that the total number of bacteria was other than very large. It is evident then that the various substances, such as waste matters from manufactories, which are discharged in large quantities into the London sewers, and yet may be regarded as foreign to sewage, do not inhibit the growth of the sewage bacteria to any marked extent. It is important to note this fact, because if the bacterial purification of sewage should be adopted on a large scale, disastrous results might arise if the sewage was at one time rich in microbial life and at another almost sterile owing to the presence of foreign substances inimical to bacteria. In conclusion, it must be borne in mind that the coke-beds at Crossness were purposely constructed so as not to lead to mere mechanical filtration of the suspended matter, much less of the bacteria in the crude sewage. In estimating the total number* of bacteria gelatine plates were used. From 0.11 to 1.0 c.c. of crude sewage or effluent diluted with 10,000 times its volume of sterile water (i.e., 0.00001 to 0.0001 c.c. of the original fluid) was added to 10 c.c. of iterile gelatine contained in a test tube. Alter the gelatine had been melted, it was poured into a Petri's capsule, and after solidification had taken place the plate was inverted, incubated at 20 C., and the colonies subsequently counted at as late a date as the liquefaction of the gelatine and the crowding of the colonies allowed of. 2.—Number of spores of bacteria in 1 c.c. (table I., col. 3). 1898. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from 4-ft. coke-bed. Effluent from 6-ft. coke-bed. May 11 460 (expt. 1) 260 (expt. 2) ... ... „ 18 300 ( „ 3) 140 ( „ 4) ... ... „ 25 370 ( „ 5) 380 ( „ 6) ... ... June 9 560 ( „ 7) 230 ( „ 8) ... ... „ 15 180 ( „ 9) 300 ( „ 10) ... ... „ 22 310 ( „ 11) 60 ( „ 12) ... ... July 20 400 ( „ 15) 430 ( „ 16) ... ... „ 27 870 ( „ 19) 480 (expt. 20) August 4 280 ( „ 23) 220 ( „ 24) ... ... „ 9 340 ( „ 27) ... ... 300( „ 28) Highest number 870 ( „ 19) 430 ( „ 16) 480 ( „ 20) Lowest number 180 ( „ 9) 60 ( „ 12) 300 ( „ 28) Average 407 (av. of 10 expts.) 252 (av. of 8 expts.) 390 (av. of 2 expts.) These results are shown in graphic form in Diagram 4. * See B 3, page 2—First Report. 23 In these comparative experiments the number of spores of bacteria in the crude sewage usually exceeded those found in the effluents from the coke-beds, but on three separate occasions the number in the effluent from the 4-foot coke-bed was greater than in the crude sewage—namely, experiments 6,10, and 16 as compared with experiments 5, 9, and 15. The averages were 407, 252, and 390 in the crude sewage, in the effluent from the 4-foot bed and in the effluent from the 6-foot bed respectively. The percentage reduction of spores of bacteria was on an average 38 in the case of the 4-foot coke-bed effluent, and 4 in the case of the 6-foot coke-bed effluent. In the latter case, however, the average is based on two experiments only. In the case of the 4-ft. coke-bed effluent, the percentage reduction in the number of spores was slightly greater than the percentage reduction of the total number of bacteria. Yet the number of spores remaining in the effluent, namely, 252 on an average, was large. Spores of bacteria are peculiarly resistant to unfavourable physical conditions; fortunately, however, the majority, at all events, of the spores of aerobic micro-organisms found in sewage belong to species which are believed to be harmless. Taking the figures 6,140,000, 4,437,500 and 4,150,000 as representing the total number of bacteria, and 407, 252 and 390 as representing the number of spores in one cubic centimeter of an average sample of Crossness crude sewage, of effluent from 4-ft. bed, and of effluent from 6-ft. bed respectively, the ratios of spores to bacteria are as 1 to 15,086, 1 to 17,609, and 1 to 10,641 respectively. It appears, then, that there was a slight diminution in the number of spores, relative to the total number of bacteria, as a result of the treatment of the sewage in the 4-ft. coke-bed The opposite is the case as regards the 6-ft. bed, but here only two samples of effluent were examined. Comparing diagrams 3 and 4 as regards crude sewage, no direct parallelism appears to exist between the total number of germs and the number of spores, although to some extent a rise or fall in the total number of bacteria was associated with a rise or fall in the number of spores. When, however, a similar comparison is made in the case of the 4-ft. coke-bed effluent, it will be noted that a parallelism does exist between the total number and the number of spores of bacteria. In estimating the number of spores of bacteria, *the following plan was adopted:—To 10 c.c. of sterile gelatine in a test tube was added 1 c.c. of diluted sewage or effluent (1:10), and the mixture heated to 80° C. for ten minutes and then poured into a Petri's capsule. After the gelatine had become quite solid the plate was inverted and incubated at 20° C. 3.—Number of liquefying bacteria in 1 c.c. (table I., col. 4). 1898. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from 4-ft. coke-bed. Effluent from 6-ft. coke-bed. May 11 400,000 (expt. 1) 1,300,000 (expt. 2) ... ... „ 18 100,000 ( „ 3) 700,000 ( „ 4) ... ... „ 25 900,000 ( „ 5) 700,000 ( „ 6) ... ... June 9 1,400,000 ( „ 7) 200,000 ( „ 8) ... ... „ 15 800,000 ( „ 9) 1,100,000 ( „ 10) ... ... „ 22 900,000 ( „ 11) 600,000 ( „ 12) ... ... July 20 1,700,000 ( „ 15) 1,000,000 ( „ 16) ... ... „ 27 900,000 ( „ 19) 300,000 (expt. 20) August 4 400,000 ( „ 23) 500,000 ( „ 24)" „ 9 1,100,000 ( „ 27) 200,000 ( „ 28) Highest number 1,700,000 ( „ 15) 1,300,000 ( „ 2) 300,000 ( „ 20) Lowest number 100,000 ( „ 3) 200,000 ( „ 8) 200,000 ( „ 28) Average 860,000 (av. of 10 expts.) 762,500 (av. of 8 expts.) 250,000 (av. of 2 expts). These results are shown in graphic form in Diagram 5. Although the number of liquefying bacteria in the crude sewage largely exceeded those in the effluent from the 6-ft. coke-bed, the difference between the liquefying microbes in the 4-ft. coke-bed effluent and in the crude sewage was not great, and in four out of the eight comparative experiments the number was greatest in the former—namely, in experiments 2, 4, 10, and 24, as compared with experiments 1, 3, 9, and 23. The averages were 860,000, 762,500, and 250,000 in the crude sewage, in the effluent from the 4-ft. bed, and in the effluent from the 6-ft. bed. The percentage reduction was on an average 11.3 in the case of the 4-foot coke-bed effluent and 70'9 in the case of the 6-foot coke-bed effluent. But as regards the 6-foot coke-bed effluent, the average is based on the result of the examination of two samples only. It is to be noted that in the case of the 4-foot coke-bed effluent the reduction in the liquefying bacteria, as compared with the reduction in the total number of microbes and in the spores of microorganisms, was very small. The ratio between the number of liquefying bacteria and the total number of bacteria in Crossness crude sewage, in the effluent from the 4-foot bed and the effluent from the 6-foot bed, is 1 to 7.1, 1 to 5.8, and 1 to 16.6 respectively. As regards the 4-foot bed, it would seem as if the biological treatment of the sewage gave rise to a slight increase in the number of liquefying bacteria relative to the total number of germs. The opposite holds good in the case of the 6-foot bed, but here only two samples were examined. Comparing diagrams 3 and 5 as regards the crude sewage it will be seen that a rise or fall in the total number of bacteria was to some extent associated with a rise or fall in the number of liquefying bacteria. But when in the case of the 4-foot coke-bed effluent a similar comparison is made, it will be noted that the parallelism between the two was more distinct. Comparing diagrams 3, 4, and 5, it follows from what has been already said as regards the 4-ft. cokebed effluent, that if the total number of bacteria and the number of spores, and the total number of bacteria and the number of liquefying organisms, are related in each case, then there must be some relation between *See B 4, page 2—First Report. 24 the number of liquefying germs and the number of spores. Further, it has been said as regards the crude sewage, that no distinct parallelism exists between the total number of bacteria and the number of spores and the relation between the total number and the number of liquefying microbes is not well marked. Neither, on comparing diagrams 4 and 5, does there appear to be any distinct relation between the number of spores and the number of liquefying bacteria in the crude sewage. In order to observe these facts more closely reference may be made to diagrams 6 and 7, which show the percentage deviation from the mean in the different samples of crude sewage and effluent from the 4-ft. and 6-ft. beds as regards total number of germs, number of spores, and number of liquefying bacteria. Firstly, as regards the crude sewage, diagram 6 shows that there is no definite relation between the total number of bacteria and the number of spores. To some extent, however, there is a relation between the total number of bacteria and the liquefying germs. Secondly, as regards the effluents from the coke-beds, diagram 7 shows that there is a distinct relation between the total number—the number of spores and the number of liquefying bacteria. Although, however, a rise or fall above or below the mean in the total uumber was nearly always coincident with a rise or fall above or below the mean in the number of spores and the number of liquefying bacteria, the percentage deviation in each case showed no parallelism. Lastly, comparing diagrams 6 and 7, no relationship can be made out between the total number, the number of spores and the number of liquefying bacteria in the crude sewage, as compared with the effluent from the 4-ft. bed. In the first report it was stated (page 4, c. 3) that—"It must not be concluded, however, that because a micro-organism liquefies gelatine, it will also liquefy all the various and complex kinds of organic matter existing in sewage. But it is safe to assert that a liquid rich in bacteria of varied species, many of which are capable of producing liquefaction of gelatine, is likely also to be rich in ability to dissolve solid or suspended oiganic matter." As illustrating the complex behaviour of different germs to different albuminoids, and also of the same organism to different albuminoids, it may be noted that some bacteria liquefy gelatine, others do not; some coagulate the casein in milk and then dissolve it, others coagulate it and do not further peptonize it, others peptonize it directly; again some organisms which liquefy gelatine coagulate milk, others coagulate milk but do not liquefy gelatine; again an organism which liquefies gelatine may or may not produce liquefaction of fibrin, of blood serum or of egg albumen, and an organism capable of peptonizing fibrin may fail to liquefy gelatine. In a description of some of the bacteria found in the crude sewage and in the effluents which accompanies this report, will be found details relating to their behaviour when grown in milk, gelatine, blood serum, etc. For example, "sewage proteus" quickly liquefies gelatine and blood serum, and apparently peptonizes milk without first coagulating it. B. coli produces no liquefaction of gelatine or blood serum, but clots milk in 24 hours at 37°C. B. mesentericus I. rapidly liquefies gelatine and blood serum, and apparently peptonizes milk without previous coagulation. B. mesentericus E. liquefies gelatine very slowly, but liquefies blood serum fairly rapidly at 37°C., and produces a weak clot in milk which appears to be subsequently dissolved. In estimating the number of liquifying organisms the following plan* was adopted—The contents of a test tube containing 10 c.c. of sterile nutrient gelatine were melted and poured into a sterile Petri's capsule. After the gelatine had become quite solid the surface of the medium was inoculated with 0"1 c.c. of diluted sewage or effluent (1: 10,000). The diluted sewage or effluent (representing 0.00001 c.c.) was then spread over the entire surface of the gelatine with a platinum instrument. The plate was next inverted and incubated at 20° C. in this position until the colonies were sufficiently advanced in their growth for observation. Although this method is the best one available, it must be remembered that some bacteria liquefy the gelatine so very slowly that they might readily escape being counted as liquefying germs under the above conditions of experiment. This matters the less since bacteriologists are in the habit of classing some, at all events, of these bacteria as non-liquefiers. 4.—Spkcies of Micro-organisms present in Crossness Crude Sewage and in the Efflubnts from the Coke-Beds. (a) Bacillus enteritidis sporogenes (Klein).† In the First Report the result of a considerable number of experiments were given, showing that the spores of B. enteritidis may be present in London crude sewage ‡ in numbers varying from 10 to 1,000 per c.c. Further, it was pointed out that Dr. Klein's researches tend to show that this organism is causally related to diarrhoea. That its cultures are extremely virulent may be seen by referring to col. 5, expt. 6, Table I., and col. 5, expts. 4 and 5, Table II., and also expts. 1 and 2, col. 5, Table I., of First Report. Again, it was stated that this pathogenic anaerobe is most important from the point of view of the bacterioscopic analysis of water, and lastly the hope was held out that future work would show what was the fate of Enteritidis during the nassasre of the sewasre through the biological coke-beds at the Outfall Works. The following is a summary of the results shown in col. 5 of Table I.— Date. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from 4-foot coke-bed. Effluent from 6-foot coke-bed. Effluent from 6-foot coke-bed again passed through the laboratory vessel at Crossness. 1898. 1lth May + 0'1 c.c. - 0.01, 0.001 and 0.0001 c.c. sewage (expt. 1) + 001 c.c. — 0001 and 00001 c.c. effluent (expt. 2) ... ... L8th May + 0.1, 0.01 and 0.00l c.c. sewage (expt. 3) + 0T and 0p01 c.c. — 0.00l c.c. effluent (expt. 4) ... ... *See B 5, page 2.—First Report. + See figure 2, Plate I., of this report, and Nos. 3 and 14 (Plate I.), First Report. ‡See page 5, and also Table I., of First Report. 25 Date. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from 4-foot coke-bed. Effluent from 6-foot coke-bed. Effluent from 6-foo coke-bed again passed through the laboratory vessel at Crossness. 1898. 25th May + 01 and 0.0l c.c. — 0.00lc.c. sewage (expt. 5) + 0.l, 0.0l and 0.00l c.c. effluent (expt. 6) ... * * * 9th June + 01 and 0.0l c.c. sewage (expt. 7) + 0.l and 0.0l c.c. effluent (expt. 8) ... ... 15th June + 0.l c.c. sewage (expt. 9) + 0.l c.c. effluent (expt. 10) ... ... 22nd June + 0.l, 0.0l and 0.001 c.c. sewage (expt. 11) + 0.1 c.c. — 0.01 and 0 001 c.c. effluent (expt. 12) ... ... 6th July + 0.1 c.c. — 0.01 and 0 001 c.c. sewage (expt. 13) ... + 0.l c.c. — 0.01 and 0.001 c.c. effluent (expt. 14) ... 20th July +O.l and 0.01 c.c. — O'OOl c.c. sewage (expt. 15) + 0.l and 0.0l c.c. — 0.00l c.c. effluent (expt. 16) + 0.l and 0.0l c.c. effluent (expt. 17) + 0.l and 0.0l c.c. effluent (expt. 18) 27th July + 0.1 and 0.01 c.c. sewage (expt. 19) + 0.1 and 0.0l c.c. —0.00l c.c. effluent (expt. 21) + 0.l and 0.0l c.c. effluent (expt. 20) +1.0 and O'l c.c. — 0.01 c.c. effluent (expt. 22) 4th August ... + 0.l and 0.01 c.c. sewage (expt. 23) + 0.l and 0.0l c.c. effluent (expt. 24) + 0.l c.c. effluent (expt. 25) + 0.l c.c. effluent (expt. 26) 9th August + O'l c.c. — 0 01 c.c. sewage (expt. 27) + 0.l and 0 .1 c.c. effluent (expt. 29) + 0.l and 0.0l c.c. effluent (expt. 28) + 0.l c.c. — 0.01 c.c. effluent (expt. 30) (The sign + signifies the presence, and the sign — the absence of the spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes.) The above results are shown in graphic form in Diagram 8. As regards the crude sewage and the effluents from the 4-foot bed, it is to be noted that the number of spores of B. enteritidis varied from 10 to 1,000 per c.c. In the case of both the 6-foot coke-bed effluent and the effluent from the laboratory vessel the numbers were found to vary from 10 to 100 per c.c., but there may have been more spores present, as the minimum amount of the liquid added to the milk-tubes was O'Ol c.c. In comparing the various results, it is noteworthy that although the number of spores of B. enteritidis in the crude sewage exceeded those found in the 4-foot coke-bed effluent on two separate occasions, the number on three other occasions was greatest in the 4-foot coke-bed effluent. In the remaining five comparative experiments the numbers were approximately equal. As regards the crude sewage and the 6-foot coke-bed effluent, the numbers were equal on July 6th, 20th, and 27th. On August 4th the number was greater in the crude sewage, and on August 9th greatest in the 6-foot coke-bed effluent. The laboratory coke-bed effluent and the crude sewage gave an equal number on July 20th and August 9th, but on July 27th and August 4th the crude sewage contained a larger number of spores. Judging these results as a whole, it cannot be said that the biological processes at work in the coke-beds produced any significant alteration in the number of spores of this pathogenic anaerobe. This is the less to be regretted since the effluents are discharged into a large tidal river* below locks, the water of which is not used for drinking purposes. Still, it is to be thought of that the cultures of B. enteritidis sporogenes are extremely virulent, and that Dr. Klein's results seem to prove that this anaerobe may be causally related to acute diarrhoea. At all events, it is highly important from a practical as well as from a scientific point of view to continue these observations on the number of spores of B. enteritidis in crude sewage and in the effluents from the coke-beds. The method for detecting the presence of the spores of this bacillus is as followsf—Dilute 1 part of crude sewage or of effluent, as the case may be, with 99 parts of sterile water; of this dilution add l'O, 0'1, and O'Ol c.c. severally to three sterile milk tubes. Heat the tubes to 80° C. for ten minutes, and cultivate anaerobically by Buchner's method at a temperature of 37° C. In certain cases it is necessary to add as much as O'l c.c. of the crude sewage or effluent directly to the milk tube. When B. enteritidis is present the casein is precipitated, the whey remains nearly colourless, and there is a marked development of gas.J These changes in the milk commonly take place in less than 24 hours. A guinea-pig inoculated subcutaneously with 1 c.c. of the whey, usually dies in less than 24 hours, and presents, on post-mortem examination, appearances which are typical of enteritidis (extensive gangrene, sanguineous exudation full of bacilli, etc.). (a) Bacillus Goli Communis.§ In the First Report the results of a considerable number of experiments were given, showing that B. coli was present in the crude sewage in numbers exceeding 100,000 per c.c., and it was stated that in future * That Thames water itself contains the spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes may be seen by referring to Table II. f See page 3 of First Report. J See No. 14, plate I. of First Report. § In the First Report a number of illustrations were shown, illustrating the morphological and biological characters of this micro-organism. [4] 26 work this micro-organism would be searched for in the effluents from the coke-beds. It was also pointed out that its presence in such an effluent might be considered as showing a derivation of the liquid from sewage, and hence as indicating the possible presence of other and, perhaps, dangerous bacteria which had survived the biological processes at work in the coke-beds, but did not signify that the liquid was necessarily of a degraded, offensive, and putrescible character. Although it has been long known that 11. coli is an organism characteristic of faecal discharges, no accurate record exists of the determiation of the number of these germs in samples of crude sewage periodically examined. The importance of establishing such a record will be understood when it is remembered that sewage is the chief and most dangerous source of pollution of potable waters. If, then, we know the number of germs of B. coli in crude sewage, and if we find that pure waters do not contain this organism, or contain it only in few numbers, we are in a position to judge of the importance of its presence in a given sample of water. It is true that B. coli is widely distributed in nature, is capable under certain circumstances of multiplying outside the animal body, and is present in other excreta besides those of human beings. These facts no doubt to some extent lessen the value of the mere demonstration of B. coli in water, but sink into comparative insignificance when the relative abundance of this micro-organism is considered. It has already been shown that B. coli may be present in crude sewage in numbers exceeding 100,000 per c.c., and it may safely be affirmed that in a water free from any likelihood of pollution B. coli is not discoverable, or is present in very few numbers. A minimal quantity of sewage gaining access to a large bulk of water would increase the number of B. coli in water very greatly; and it is difficult to conceive of any substance other than sewage producing a result in any way comparable. It is particularly difficult to conceive of a substance of an unobjectionable nature producing this result. No doubt in certain cases the presence of B. coli in water may arise from indirect pollution with sewage, as, for example, where the surface drainage from manured or polluted soil gains access to a supply. Yet, even here, the danger so far as potability is concerned could hardly be considered remote. It is not the presence of B. coli in water, but its relative abundance, which entitles the bacteriologist to assume pollution direct or indirect with sewage, or to avoid all controversial points with a substance of an objectionable nature. Certainly, in view of the fact that this organism is not discoverable in waters free from any likelihood of sewage pollution, and is found to be present in great numbers in waters which are known to be fiscally contaminated, and is present in crude sewage in numbers vastly exceeding any other substance at all likely to contaminate a water supply; it seems justifiable to conclude that its presence in considerable numbers in a given sample of water indicates pollution of an objectionable kind, and, in all probability, points to contamination with sewage. Enough, at all events, has been made out to show the importance of a large number of observations having for their object the collection of data dealing not only with the presence, but with the relative abundance of B. coli in sewage. Of the importance of experiments having for their aim the estimation of the number of B. coli in the effluents from the biological coke-beds as compared with the number in the crude sewage applied to the coke-beds there cannot be a doubt. And here it may be stated that much that has been said in the above sentences applies with perhaps even greater force to B. enleritidis sporogenes. B coli. is an example of an aerobic, and B. enteritidis sporogenes of an anaerobic micro-organism, the former being peculiarly abundant in crude sewage, and the latter less abundant, but perhaps more characteristic. The estimation of their numbers in the effluents as compared with the crude sewage needs no comment to show its importance. The following is a summary of the results, as regards B. coli shown in col. 5, Table I.— Date. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from 4-foot coke-bed. Effluent from 6-foot coke-bed. 1898. llth May No colonies of B. coli in phenol gelatine plate containing 0.0000l c.c. sewage (expt. 1) 200,000 B. coli per c.c. (expt. 2) ... 18th May Gas forming coli bacteria, 300,000 per c.c. (expt. 3) 200,000 gas forming coli per c.c. (expt. 4) ... 25th May Gas forming coli, 1,500,000 per c.c. (expt. 5) Gas forming coli, 700,000 per c.c. (expt. 6) ... 9th June Gas forming coli, 200,000 per c.c. (expt. 7) Gas forming coli, 100,000 per c.c. (expt. 8) ... 15th June Gas forming coli, 300,000 per c.c. (expt. 9) Gas forming coli, 600,000 per c.c. (expt. 10) ... 22nd June Gas forming coli, 300,000 per c.c. (expt. 11) Gas forming coli, 300,000 per c.c. (expt. 12) ... 20th July Gas forming coli, at least 300,000 per c.c. (expt. 15) Gas forming coli, at least 300,000 per c.c. (expt. 16) ... 27th July B. coli, 500,000 per c.c. (expt. 19) ... B. coli, 600,000 per c.c. (expt. 20) 4th August B. coli, 200,000 per c.c. (expt. 23) B. coli, 300,000 per c.c. (expt. 24) ... 9th August B. coli, 1,000,000 per c.c. (expt. 27) ... B. coli, 200,000 per c.c. (expt. 28) These results are shown in graphic form in Diagram 9. 27 It is to be noted that on three separate occasions the number of B. coli in the crude sewage exceeded the number found in the 4-foot coke-bed effluent, and on three other occasions the conditions were reversed in this respect. In the two comparative experiments remaining the numbers were approximately equal. As regards the 6-foot coke-bed effluent, on one occasion the number in the effluent was somewhat greater than the number in the crude sewage; on the other occasion the crude sewage contained a much larger number. Judging the experiments as a whole it cannot be said that the biological processes at work in the coke-beds effected any marked alteration in the number of B. coli. It must not, however, be too lightly considered that this implies that the effluent was necessarily of an offensive and putrescible character. B. coli and other putrefactive bacteria no doubt work in the direction of purifying the sewage, and their presence in the effluent might only mean that the purification had not been carried sufficiently far to allow of a decrease in their numbers, owing to the incomplete reduction of the organic matters on which they feed and which allow of their continued multiplication. Yet, when this has been said, it must also be admitted that the passage of an aerobic non-spore-forming bacillus typical of excremental matters through the coke-beds, in practically unaltered numbers, is not a desirable state of things. It is true that B. coli is not pathogenic in the ordinary meaning of the word, but its presence in the effluents implies the possible presence of other bacteria—it might be of dangerous sort. Still, on the whole it may be said that the balance of evidence points to pathogenic aerobic bacteria being liable to be crowded out in the struggle for existence in a nutrient fluid containing a mixed bacterial flora and one rich in saprophytic micro-organisms.* Lastly, it must be remembered that the effluent is discharged into a large tidal river at a point far below the lowest "intake" of water for waterworks purposes. Moreover, the Thames before it reaches the Outfalls of the Sewage Works is already grossly polluted with excremental matters.† In searching for B. coli in the crude sewage and in the effluents the following plan was adopted‡—10 c.c. of sterile gelatine, contained in a test tube, were melted, 01 c.c. of five per cent. phenol added, and then the gelatine was poured into a Petri's capsule and allowed to become quite solid. 01 c.c. of diluted sewage, or else of effluent (1:10,000) was next added and spread over the entire surface of the gelatine with a platinum spreader. Colonies which were typical of B. coli in their microscopical appearance and in the manner of their growth were then subcultured in broth (for diffuse cloudiness and indol reaction), in litmus milk (for acidity and clotting), and in gelatine shake culture (for gas formation). It was not, however, found possible in all of the experiments to apply all of these tests, although, in the majority of cases the gas test in gelatine was applied. (c) Other Species of Bacteria. Besides searching for B. enteritidis and B. coli the attempt was also made to estimate the number as well as the character of other microbes present in the crude sewage and in the effluents. Notes under this heading will be found in col. 5 of Table I. Thus the organism called "sewage proteus," of which a description appears in this report, was found to be present in great numbers (usually over 100,000 per c.c.) in both the crude sewage and in the effluents. Other microbes found in the crude sewage and effluents were B. fluoresceins liquefaciens and its varieties, B. fluorescens non-liquefaciens, B. mescntericus (a description of two varieties of this bacillus is given in this report), B. sublitis, B. mycoides, B. pyocyaneus.§ streptococci, staphylococci, Ac. In experiments 3 and 5 (col. 5, Table I.) the number of bacteria in the crude sewage capable of growing at 37° C. in agar was estimated. The numbers were 1,260,000 and 1,171,000 per c.c. as compared with 3,670,000 and 6,400,000 obtained by gelatine plate cultivation at 20° C. A similar experiment (experiment 4) with the effluent from the 4-foot filter bed gave 1,630,000 (agar, at 37° C.) as compared with 4,100,000 (gelatine, at 20° C.) bacteria per c.c. In experiments 9 and 10 (col. 5, Table I.) it was sought to discover the smallest amount of crud sewage and of effluent which in broth cultures at 20° C. would produce growth, indol reaction and offensive smell. No growth occurred in either case, when as little as 0.0000001 c.c. was inoculated into the broth; but when 0.000001 c.c. was used, growth occurred both in the case of the crude sewage and of the effluent, and the cultures had an offensive smell and gave indol reaction. In concluding this section of the report it may be said that when making comparative cultivations from different liquids the trained observer can often detect differences in the characters of the colonies developing in the nutrient media which are none the less real because they cannot always be put into definite language. Speaking from this point of view, it must be admitted that little or no real distinction could be made out between the cultures made from the crude sewage and those made from the effluents, other than those points of difference already considered—namely, a slight reduction in the total number of aerobic bacteria, the number of spores of aerobic bacteria, and the number of liquefying aerobic bacteria found in the effluent, as compared with the crude sewage. * See, however, notes under heading—The biological treatment of sewage. t See results shown in Table II. ‡See pages 3 and 6 of First Report. § A cultivation of B. pyocyaneus isolated from a sample of Crossness crude sewage proved to be extremely virulent. Thus 1 c.c. of a 24 hours' broth culture (at 37° C.) injected subcutaneously into a guinea-pig, killed the animal in less than 24 hours, and the organism was recovered in pure culture from the heart's blood, spleen, &c. 28 IV. —TABLES AND DIAGRAMS DEALING WITH THE RESULTS OF THE BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF THE CRUDE SEWAGE, OF THE EFFLUENTS FROM THE COKE-BEDS, OF THE EFFLUENTS FROM THE CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION WORKS, AND OF SAMPLES OF THAMES WATER. Table I., showing the results of the bacteriological examination of Crossness crude sewage, the effluent from the 4-foot coke-bed, the effluent from the 6-foot coke-bed, and the effluent from the laboratory vessel (effluent from 6-foot coke-bed again treated in the laboratory at Crossness). Expt. Description of the samples. Total number of bacteria in 1 c.c. of the sample. Number of spores of bacteria in 1 c.c. of the sample. Number of bacteria causing liquefaction of the gelatine in 1 c.c. of the sample. Remarks. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1 Crossness crude sewage, May 11, 1898. 3,930,000 (average of two expts. with 0.0001 and 0.0000l c.c. sewage). 460 (one expt. with 0.l c.c. sewage). 400,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. sewage). Spores of B. enteritidis present in milk culture containing 0.l c.c. sewage; absent in cultures containing 0.01, 0.001, and 0.000l c.c. sewage. In phenol gelatine plate containing 0.0000l c.c. sewage, no colonies of B. coli. B. fluoresceins liquefaciens, 200,000 in 1 c.c. " Sewage proteus," 200,000 in 1 c.c. In cultivation for spores (0.l c.c. sewage, col. 3) 10 colonies of B. mesentericus and several of B. mbtilis. At least 5 different species of bacteria in 0.0000l c.c. sewage. 2 Crossness effluent from 4-foot bed, May 11, 1898. 4,800,000 (average of two expts. with 0.0001 and 0.0000l c.c. effluent). 260 (one expt. with 0.l c.c. effluent). 1,300,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. effluent). Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.0l c.c.; absent in 0.00l and 0.0001 c.c. effluent. In phenol gelatine plate containing 0.0000l c.c. effluent, at least two colonies of B. coli. No fluorescent colonies noted in any of the cultures on the fifth day. " Sewage proteus," 400,000 in 1 c.c. In cultivation for spores (0.l c.c. effluent, col. 3) 20 colonies of B. mesentericus. At least four different species of bacteria in 0.0000l c.c. effluent. 3 Crossness crude sewage, May 18,1898. 3,670,000 (average of two expts. with 0.0001 and 0.0000l c.c. sewage). 300 one expt. with 0.l c.c. sewage). 100,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. sewage). Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.l, 0.0l, and 0.00l c.c. sewage. An agar plate culture incubated at 37° C. yielded only 1,260,000 bacteria per c.c. sewage as compared with 3,670,000 by gelatine plate culture at 20° C. Gas-forming coli bacteria, 300,000 in 1 c.c. sewage. B. fluorescens liquefaciens, 100,000 in 1 c.c. sewage. " Sewage proteus," 100,000 in 1 c.c. sewage. 4 Crossness effluent from 4-foot cokebed, May 18, 1898. 4,100,000 (average of two expts. with 0.000l and 0.00001 c.c. effluent). 140 (one expt. with 0.l c.c. effluent). 700,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. effluent). Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.l and 0.0l c.c.; absent in 0.00l c.c. effluent. An agar plate culture incubated at 37° C. yielded only 1,630,000 bacteria per c.c. effluent as compared with 4,100,000 by gelatine plate culture at 20° C. Gas-forming coli, at least 200,000 per c.c. effluent. B. fluorescens liquefaciens 10,000, and B. fluorescens non-liquefaciens 10,000 in 1 c.c. effluent. " Sewage proteus," 100,000 in 1 c.c. effluent. 5 Crossness crude sewage, May 25, 1898. 6,400,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. sewage). 370 (one expt. with 0.l c.c. sewage). 900,000 (one expt. with 0.00001 c.c. sewage). The liquefaction of the gelatine with 0.000l c.c. sewage (col. 2) was so great that this culture could not be counted; the cultivation, however, containing 0.0000l c.c. sewage was counted. Spores of B. enteritidis in 0.l and 0.0l c.c.; absent in 0.00l c.c. sewage. Gas-forming coli, 1,500,000 in 1 c.c. sewage (see photo 1, Plate I., First Report). An agar plate culture incubated at 37° C. yielded 1,171,000 colonies per c.c. sewage. " Sewage proteus," at least 100,000perc.c. sewage. No fluorescent colonies noted in culture containing 0.0000l c.c. sewage. In cultivation for spores (0.l c.c. sewage, col. 3) several colonies of B. mesentericus 29 Expt. Description of the samples. Total number of bacteria in 1 c.c. of the sample. Number of spores of bacteria in 1 c.c. of the sample. Number of bacteria causing liquefaction of the gelatine in 1 c.c. of the sample. Remarks. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6 Crossness effluent from 4-foot cokebed, May 25, 1898. 6,100,000 (one expt. with 0.00001 c.c. effluent.) 380 (one expt. with 0.l c.c. effluent). 700,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. effluent). The liquefaction of the gelatine with 0.0001 c.c. effluent was so rapid that the culture could not be counted; the cultivation, however, containing 0.0000l o.c. effluent was counted. Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.l, 0.0l and 0.001 c.c. effluent. Dr. Klein inoculated a guineapig with 1 c.c. of the whey from an anaerobic milk culture containing 0.00l c.c. effluent. The following day the animal was dead, and presented on examination the appearances which are typical of enteritidis (extensive gangrene, sanguineous exudation full of bacilli, etc.). Gas-forming coli, 700,000 per c.c. of effluent. No fluorescent colonies noted in 0.00001 c.c. effluent (5th day). 7 Crossness crude sewage, June 9,1898. 6,500,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. sewage). 560 (one expt. with 0.l c.c. sewage). 1,400,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. sewage). Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.l and 0.0l c.c. sewage. In the cultivation for spores (0.l c.c. sewage, col. 3), several colonies of B. mesentericus. Gas-forming coli, 200,000 in 1 c.c. sewage. No fluorescent colonies noted in any of the cultures (4th day). "Sewage proteus," at least 100,000 per c.c. of sewage. 8 Crossness effluent from 4-foot cokebed, June 9 1898. 1,200,000 (average of three expts. with 0.0000l effluent in each case). 230 (one expt. with 0.l c.c. effluent). 200,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. effluent). Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.l and 0.0l c.c. effluent. Gas-forming col., 100,000 in 1 c.c. effluent. No fluorescent colonies noted in any of the cultures (4th day). "Sewage proteus," 100,000 in 1 c.c. effluent. Anaerobic grape sugar gelatine cultivations were made with similar amounts of effluent (expt. 8) and crude sewage (expt. 7); the colonies were certainly more numerous in the culture made from the crude sewage. 9 Crossness crude sewage, June 15,1898. 4,000,000 (one expt. with 0.00001 c.c. sewage). 180 (one expt. with 0.l c.c. sewage). 800,000 (one expt. with0.00001 c.c. sewage). Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.l c.c. sewage. In the cultivation for spores (0.l c.c. sewage, col. 3), 1 colony of B. mycoides. Gas-forming coli, 300,000 per c.c. sewage. B. jluorescens liquefaciens, 100,000 in 1 c.c. sewage. (a) 0.0001; (6) 0.000001; and (c) 0.0000001 c.c. sewage inoculated into each of three bouillon tubes and incubated at 20° C.; on 7th day no growth in (c), growth and offensive smell in (a) and (b)—(a) gave strong indol reaction and (6) faint trace. 10 Crossness effluent from 4-foot cokebed, June 15, 1898. 5,300,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. effluent). 300 (one expt. with 0.l c.c. effluent). 1,100,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. effluent). Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.l c.c. effluent. Gas-forming coli, 600,000 per c.c. effluent, (a) 0.0001; (6) 0.000001; and (c) 0.0000001 c.c. effluent inoculated into each of three bouillon tubes and incubated at 20° C.; on 7th day no growth in (c), growth and offensive smell in (a) and (6)—(a) and (6) both gave distinct indol reaction. 11 Crossness crude sewage, June 22,1898. 9,100,000 (one expt. with 0.00001 c.c. sewage). 310 (one expt. with 0.l c.c. sewage). 900,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. sewage). Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.l, 0.01 and 0.00l c.c. sewage. Gas-forming coli, 300,000 in 1 c.c. sewage. " Sewaqe proteus," 100,000 per c.c. sewage. 12 Crossness effluent from 4-foot cokebed, June 22, 1898. 3,000,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. effluent.) 60 (one expt. with 0.l c.c. effluent). 600,000 (one expt. 0.0000l c.c. effluent). Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.l c.c.; absent in 0.01 and 0.00l c.c. effluent. No colonies of "sewage proteus" in 0.00001 c.c. effluent. Gas-forming coli, 300,000 per c.c. effluent. B. Jluorescens liquefaciens, 100,000 in 1 c.c. effluent. 30 Expt. Description of the samples. Total number of bacteria, in 1 c.c. of the sample. Number of spores of bacteria in 1 c.c. of the sample. Number of bacteria causing liquefaction of the gelatine in 1 c.c. of the sample. Remarks. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 13 Crossness crude sewage, July 6, 1898. This sample was exam ined for B. e nteritidis onl y. Spores of B. enteritidia present in 0.1 c.c.; absent 0.0l and 0.001 c.c. sewage. 14 Crossness effluent from 6-foot cokebed, July 6, 1898. do. Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.l c.c.; absent in 0.0l and 0.00l c.c. sewage. 15 Crossness crude sewage, July 20,1898. 12,800,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. sewage;. 400 (one expt. with 0.1 c.c. sewage). 1,700,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. sewage). The liquefaction of the gelatine with 0.0001 c.c. sewage (col. 2) was so rapid that the colonies could not be counted. The cultivation containing 0.0000l c.c. sewage was, however, counted. Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.l and 0.0l c.c.; absent in O'OOl c.c. sewage. Gas-forming coli, at least 300,000 per c.c. of sewage. B. fluoresces liquefaciens, 100,000 in 1 c.c. sewage. "Sewage proteus,"several colonies in 0.0000l c.c. sewage. Spores of B. mesentericus and B. subtilis present in 0.l c.c. sewage. 16 Crossness effluent from 4-foot cokebed, July 20, 1898. 9,200,000 (one expt. with 0.00001 c.c.effluent). 430 (one expt. with 0.1 c.c. effluent). 1,000,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. effluent). The liquefaction of the gelatine with 0.000l c.c. effluent (col. 2) was so rapid that the colonies could not be counted; the cultivation, however, containing 0.0000l c.c. sewage was counted. Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.l and 0.0l; absent in 0.00l c.c. effluent. Gas-forming coli at least 300,000 per c.c. of effluent. B. fluorescens liquefaciens, 100,000 in 1 c.c. effluent. Spores of B. mesentericus and B. subtilis present in 0.l c.c. effluent. 17 Crossness effluent from 6-foot cokebed, July 20, 1898. This sam pie was exam ined for B. e nteritidis onl y. Spores of B. enteritiiis present in 0.l and 0.0l c.c. effluent. 18 Crossness effluent from laborat ory vessel (6-foot coke - bed effluent again treated in laboratory), July 20,1898. do. Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.l and 0.01 c.c. effluent. 19 Crossness crude sewage, July 27,1898. 7,200,000 (one expt. with 0.00001 c.c. sewage). 870 (one expt. with 0.1 c.c. sewage). 900,000 (one expt. with 0.00001 c.c. sewage). Spore of B. enteritidis in 0.l and 0.0l c.c. sewage. B. coli, 500,000 in 1 c.c. sewage. Several colonies of "sewage proteus" in 0.00001c.c. sewage. B. fluorescens liquefaciens 100,000 per c.c. sewage. One colony of B. mycoides in plate culture for spores (0.l c.c. sewage, col. 3). 20 Crossness effluent from 6-foot cokebed, July 27, 1898. 6,600,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. effluent). 480 (one expt. with 0.l c.c. effluent). 300,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. effluent. Spores of B. enteritidis in 0.l and 0.0l c.c. effluent. B. coli, 600,000 in 1 c.c. effluent. 21 Crossness effluent from 4-foot cokebed, July 27, 1898. This sample was exam ined for B. e nteritidis onl y. Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.1 and 0.0l c.c.; absent in 0.00l c.c. effluent. 31 Expt. Description of the samples. Total number of bacteria in 1 c.c. of the sample. Number of spores of bacteria in 1 c.c. of the sample. Number of bacteria causing liquefaction of the gelatine in 1 c.c. of the sample. Remarks. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 22 Crossness effluent from laboratory vessel (6-foot coke - bed effluent again treated in laboratory), July 27, i898. This sample was examined for B. enteritidis only. Spores of B. enteritidis present in 1.0 and 0.1 c.c.; absent in 0.01 c.c. effluent. 23 Crossness crude sewage, Aug. 4, 1898. 4,200,000 (one expt. with 0.00001 c.c. sewage). 280 (one expt. with 0.1 c.c. sewage). 400,000 (one expt. with 0.00001 c.c. sewage). Spores of B. enteritidis in 0.1 and 0.01 c.c. crude sewage. B. coli, 200,000 in 1 c.c. crude sewage. "Sewage proteus" 200,000 in 1 c.c. crude sewage. 24 Crossness effluent from 4-foot cokebed, Aug. 4, 1898. 1,800,000 (one expt. with 0.00001 c.c. effluent). 220 (one expt. with 0.1 c.c. effluent). 500,000 (one expt. with 0.00001 c.c. effluent). Spores of B. enteritidis in 0.1 and 0.01 c.c. effluent. B. coli, 300,000 in 1 c.c. effluent. "Sewage proteus," 200,000 in 1 c.c. effluent. 25 Crossness effluent from 6-foot cokebed, Aug. 4, 1898. This sample was exam ined for B. enteritidis only. Spores of B. enteritidis in 0.1 c.c. effluent. 26 Crossness effluent from laboratory vessel (6-foot coke - bed effluent again treated in laboratory), Aug. 4,1898. do. Spores of B. enteritidis in 0.1 c.c. effluent. 27 Crossness crude sewage, Aug. 9, 1898. 3,600,000 (one expt. with 0.00001 c.c. sewage). 340 (one expt. 0.1 c.c. sewage). 1,100,000 (one expt. with 0.00001 c.c. sewage). Spores of B. enteritidis in 0.1 c.c.; not in 0.01 c.c. sewage. B. coli, 1,000,000 in 1 c.c. sewage. 28 Crossness effluent from 6-foot cokebed, Aug. 9, 1898. 1,700,000 (one expt. with 0.00001 c.c. effluent). 300 (one expt. with 0.1 c.c. effluent). 200,000 (one expt. with 0.0000l c.c. effluent). Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.1 and 0.01 c.c. effluent. B. coli, 200,000 in 1 c.c. sewage. 29 Crossness effluent from 4-foot cokebed, Aug. 9, 1898. This sample was exam ined for B. enteritidis only. Spores of B. enteritidis in 0.1 and 0.01 c.c. effluent. 30 Crossness effluent from laborat ory vessel (6-foot coke - bed effluent again treated in laboratory), Aug. 9, 1898. do. Spores of B. enteritidis in 0.1; not in 0.01 c.c. effluent. 32 Table 2.—Showing the results of the bacteriological examination of the effluents from the Crossness and Barking Outfall Works and the water of the River Thames. Expt. Description of the samples. 1. Total number of bacteria in 1 c.c. 2. Number of spores of bacteria in 1 c.c. 3. Number of bacteria causing liquefaction of the gelatine in 1 c.c. 4. Remarks. 5. 1 Effluent from chemical precipitation works at Barking, Nov. 2, 1898. 5,200,000 (two expts. with 0.0001 and 0.00001 c.c. effluent). 100 (one expt. with 0.1 c.c. effluent). 1,100,000 (one expt. with 0.0001 c.c. effluent). Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.1, 0.01 c.c. absent in 0.001 c.c. Five colonies indistinguishable from B. coli in phenol gelatine plate containing 0.00001 c.c. effluent (500,000 per c.c. of effluent). The plate, containing 0.0001 c.c. effluent (col. 2), was too crowded to allow of the colonies being accurately counted. The plate, containing 0.1 c.c. effluent (col. 3), contained some rapidly liquefying species, so that the numbers given are only approximate. 2 Effluent from chemical precipitation works at Crossness, Nov. 2,1898. 9,800,000 (two expts. with 0.0001 and 0.00001 c.c. effluent). 300 (one expt. with 0.1 c.c. effluent). 1,000,000 (one expt. with 0.0001 c.c. effluent). Spores of B. enteritidis present in 0.1 and 0.0l c.c.; absent in 0.001 c.c. Twenty-six colonies indistinguishable from B. coli in phenol gelatine plate containing 0.00001 c.c. effluent (2,600,000 per c.c. of effluent). The 0.00001 c.c. plate (col. 2) was counted, but not the 0.0001 c.c. plate, as this was too crowded. 3 Thames water collected off Greenhithe at about 2 p.m., October 12th, 1898, on a tide which had ebbed from Crossness for about two hours. The sample was, therefore, judged to be free from admixture with recent sewage effluent. (Dry weather.) 10,000 63 No record. At least 1 but less than 10 spores of B. enteritidis per c.c. of water. No colonies of B. coli observed in phenol gelatine plate containing as small an amount of water as 0.001 c.c. That B. coli was present, however, in the water need not be doubted. There were present in the cultures numerous colonies of B. fluorescens liquefaciens and nonliquefaciens, B. mesentericus, B. mycoides, and proteus forms were also found. 4 Thames water, taken at low tide at Barking, and outside the influence of sewage discharge, as far as this was possible, Nov. 3, 1898. (Dry weather.) 34,400 89 (A Surface gelatine plate culture containing 0.1 c.c. of the water was completely liquefied by the 2nd day). At least 1 but less than 10 spores of B. enteritidis per c.c. of water. Eighty-four colonies, indistinguishable from B. coli, in phenol gelatine plate containing 0.1 c.c. of the water. There were present in the cultures, colonies of B. mesentericus, proteus zenkeri, B. fluorescens liquefaciens etc. Dr. Klein inoculated a guinea-pig with 1 c.c. of milk culture (containing 1.0 c.c. of water) which showed the typical enteritidis change. The animal died, and presented upon post-mortem examination the usual appearances; sanguineous exudation full of bacilli, etc. 5 Thames water, sample taken in mid-stream between Sunbury and Hampton, just above in take of the Southwark and Vauxhall Water Co. 10.40 a.m., Nov. 15, 1898 (dry weather). 5,100 56 No record. Spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes absent in 1.0, 5.0, 10.0, 100.0 c.c.; present in 300 c.c. Dr. Klein inoculated a guinea-pig with 1 o.c. from latter culture. The animal died in less than 24 hours, and on post-mortem examination presented the usual appearances—swollen belly, sanguineous exudation swarming with bacilli, &c. Forty gas-forming B. coli per c.c. of water. Colonies of B. fluorescens liquefaciens and nonliquefaciens and proteus-forms present in the cultures. Also a large number of colonies of B. aquatilis sulcatus type. The presence of B. enteritidis in 300 c.c. of the water was demonstrated by a special filtration process. 33 Expt. Description of the samples. 1. Total number of bacteria in 1 c.c. 2. Number of spores of bacteria in 1 c.c. 3. Number of bacteria causing liquefaction of the gelatin in 1 c.c. 4. Remarks. 5. 6 Thames water, sample taken in mid-stream at Twickenham, opposite Ham house, i.e., about half-way between Glover's island and Eel Pie island. 11 a.m., Nov. 22,1898 (very wet weather). 3,000 18 No record. Spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes present in 10 c.c., 5 c.c., 1 c.c., 0.1 c.c. of the water; absent in 0.01 c.c. In a phenol gelatine plate culture containing 0.01 c.c. of the water, one colony indistinguishable from B. coli. Subcultures from this colony gave the following results: Gas in 24 hours in gelatine shake culture incubated at 20° C. Diffuse cloudiness in broth in 24 hours at 37° C. No indol in five days. Slight acidity but no clotting in litmus milk in 48 hours at 37° C. In 96 hours, however, the milk showed a solid clot. In an ordinary gelatine plate culture containing 0.01 c.c. of the water, one colony indistinguishable from B. coli. Subcultures from this colony gave the following results: Gas in 24 hours at 20° C. in gelatine shake culture, diffuse cloudiness in broth in 24 hours at 37° C.; acidity but no clotting in litmus milk culture in 24 hours at 37° C. No indol in broth culture, fourth day, at 37° C. V—DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE BACTERIA FOUND IN THE CRUDE SEWAGE AND IN THE EFFLUENTS FROM THE COKE-BEDS. 1. B. Coli Communis. 2. B. Mesentericus. Sewage Variety E. Sewage Variety I. 3. Sewage Proteus. 4. B. Frondosus. 5. B. Fusiformis. 6. B. Subtilissimus. 7. B. Subtilis. Sewage Variety A. Sewage Variety B. 8. B. Membraneus Patulus. 9. B. Capillareus. 1. Bacillus Coli Communis. [An aerobic, non-chromogenic, slightly motile, non-liquefying bacillus.] Source.—The excreta of human beings and many of the lower animals. Very abundant in London crude sewage; usually more than 100,000 per c.c. of sewage. Morphology†.—Small bacilli with rounded ends, hardly longer than broad; solitary, often in pairs; rarely in chains containing more than two segments. Motility.—Usually only feebly motile. Spore formation.—No spores are formed. Flagella.—Dr. M. H. Gordon gives the flagella average as 1 to 3. Temperature.—Grows best at 37° C., but also very well at the ordinary temperature. Gelatine plate cultures.—The colonies develop in from 24 to 48 hours at 20° C. The deep colonies are not characteristic, the surface colonies peculiarly so, appearing as delicate, slightly granular films, of an irregularly circular shape, which are bluish-white by reflected and of an amber colour by transmitted light; they are transparent, and sometimes iridescent, especially towards the periphery, but at the centre and over the entire surface in old cultures an opacity due to a greater thickness of the bacterial growth is observed; later these surface colonies may become marked by concentric, or radiating, or irregular markings. The surrounding gelatine frequently acquires a dull, cloudy, faded appearance. The gelatine is not liquefied. Gelatine "stab" cultures.—The growth on the surface is like a surface colony in a plate culture, but tends to be more luxuriant, due to the greater thickness of the medium. A white growth extends to the foot of the stab, and gas fissures frequently appear in the gelatine. The gelatine, as already stated, is not liquefied. Gelatine "streak" cultures.—The growth is like an elongated surface colony in a gelatine plate culture, but is, perhaps, more luxuriant. Briefly, a delicate faintly-granular film forms, with transparent and irregular margins. Down the centre, longitudinally, the growth is more opaque. Sometimes the film shows iridescence, and in old cultures it may become irregularly thickened. The gelatine, which is net liquefied, becomes often clouded. The growth, which is bluish-white by reflected light, has a yellowish-amber colour by transmitted light. Potato-gelatine plate, "stab" and "streak" cultures.—The growth is somewhat similar in appearance to the above, but tends to be more circumscribed, is slower, and of a characteristic brown colour. Phenol (0.05 per cent.) gelatine cultures.—These do not differ from ordinary gelatine cultures except that growth is delayed. Gelatine " shake " cultures.*—Numerous gas bubbles are formed, usually in 24 hours, at 20° C. Agar plate cultures.—The growth is not so characteristic as in gelatine. The superficial colonies have a moist glistening white appearance. †¶* See figs. 6, 4, 13 and 5, Plate I. of First Report. [5] 34 Agar "stab" cultures.—Growth occurs all the way down the stab, and on the surface a white layer is developed. Agar "streak" cultures.—At 37° C. the growth is very rapid, and occurs as an abundant moist and white layer. Potato cultures.—A rich yellowish-brown layer quickly developes. Broth cultures.—The growth is characteristic. In less than 24 hours, at 37° C., the broth is uniformly turbid. Later, a heavy bacterial deposit collects at the foot of the tube. There is no distinct pellicle formation, but sometimes an imperfect scum forms on the surface. Phenol (0.05 per cent.) broth cultures.—The growth is the same as in an ordinary broth cultivation. Litmus milk cultures.—The growth is extremely characteristic. Usually, an acid solid clotting of the milk takes place in 24 hours at 37° C. Occasionally the clotting is somewhat delayed. First of all, the bluishpurple colour changes to pink; then clotting occurs, and the milk, except at the free surface, becomes white. Later, the redness extends from the surface downwards until the whole contents of the tube are bright red in colour. Blood serum cultures.—An abundant white layer is quickly developed at 37° C.; there is no liquefaction. Indol reaction.—Indol reaction is usually well marked in broth cultures kept at 37° C. for five days. Reduction of nitrates.—In 24 hours, at 37° C., reduction of nitrates to nitrites well marked. [Broth 5 per cent. KNO3 0.1per cent., water 94 9 per cent.] Widal's test.—Typhoid blood serum gives a negative result. Remarks.—Bacillus coli communis is one of the most abundant and most characteristic of sewage bacteria. In this and a previous report it has been shown that its number may exceed 100,000 per c.c. of London crude sewage. It has likewise been shown that it survives the processes at work in the biological filters at the Outfall Works. Apart from its function as one of nature's scavengers, the B. coli is of great importance from the point of view of the bacterioscopic examination of water. In the first report a photograph (plate I, figure 1) was given, showing that even in so minute an amount as 1/100000 c.c. Crossness crude sewage, B. coli and closely allied forms were present, and it was pointed out that a bacterial process of great delicacy exists for the detection of pollution of water with minimal quantities of sewage. It has been asserted that B. coli is abundant everywhere, that it multiplies outside the animal body, that it is present in the intestinal contents not only of human beings but of the higher mammals and birds, and that, therefore, its value as an indication of pollution of water of possibly dangerous sort is nil. The fact remains that in crude sewage B. coli is present in numbers exceeding 100,000 per c.c., and is absent, or present in but few numbers in a corresponding amount of a water free from suspicion of recent pollution. Moreover, if B. coli multiplies outside the animal body under favourable conditions, it also loses its vitality under unfavourable conditions, and we have yet to learn that the excrement of healthy, much less of diseased, mammals and birds is altogether harmless to man. The Bacillus coli may ba pathogenic, but can hardly be considered pathogenic in the ordinary sense of the term. Its presence serves rather as an index of the possible presence of other and more objectionable kinds of bacteria. No apology is needed for describing B coli in a report dealing with the bacteriology of sewage. Its prevalence in sewage, its relation to the proper bacterioscopic examination of drinking water, and the important partitplayB as one of Nature's scavengers, all make it desirable to record its chief morphological and biological characteristics. This is the more necessary as the published descriptions of this microbe are often incomplete, and in some cases even misleading. It will be noted that not only the presence of B. coli in the various samples of crude sewage and effluents has been determined, but that, as well, a record has been kept of its relative abundance. Until such records are obtained, not only as regards B. coli, but as regards many other species of micro-organisms, the usefulness of bacteriology is restricted. 2. Bacillus Mesentericus. Sewage variety E. [An aërobic, non-chromogenic, actively motile, slowly liquefying bacillus.] Sewage variety I. [An aerobic, non-chromogenic, actively motile, rapidly liquefying bacillus.'] Source. London crude sewage; gelatine plate cultures heated to 80° C. for 10 minutes. London crude sewage; gelatine plate cultures heated to 80° C. for 10 minutes. Morphology. * Long bacilli, with rounded ends; solitary, in pairs and long chains. Medium-sized bacilli, with rounded ends; solitary, † in pairs and chains. Motility. Actively motile. Exceedingly rapid movement. Spore formation. Readily forms spores. Readily forms spores. Flagella. ‡ A multi-flagellated organism. A multi-flagellated organism. || Temperature. Grows well at the room temperature, and exceedingly rapidly at 37° C. Grows very rapidly at the room temperature, and with great rapidity at 37° C. * See fig. 3, Plate I. † See fig. 5, Plate II. ‡ See fig. 4, Plate I. || See fig. 6, Plate II. 35 Gelatine plate cultures. The growth is not very rapid. The deep colonies have a somewhat starlike appearance; the superficial colonies appear as bluish-white, delicate granular films, which are almost coli-like in character. These surface colonies are somewhat irregular in shape, and from the wavy, transparent edge irregular processes are given off. Under a lower power of the microscope the deep colonies show a central darkish yellow spot, from which root-like processes are given off. The surface colonies are transparent, granular, and striated, and from the spreading edge delicate processes are given off, which spread over the surface of the gelatine, forming often curious and intricate patterns. The colonies do not attain a large size, and liquefaction only slowly sets in. The growth is characteristically rapid. The deep colonies quickly reach the surface, to form large areas of liquefied gelatine, which become saucer-shaped, and are greyish-white in colour and almost translucent.¶ From the edge of these saucer-shaped surface colonies processes may be given off which are almost of the nature of "swarming islands." These almost translucent areas of liquefied gelatine are rendered greyishwhite by the presence of innumerable bacteria, and these bacteria may be gathered together in clumps so as to give rise to a mottled appearance. A thin bacterial film tends to form on the surface of the liquefied gelatine. In a very few days the whole plate is completely liquefied. Under a low power of the microscope the deep colonies are dark in colour and granular. The surface colonies at first may be almost completely translucent and of an irregular, star-shaped form, but soon form large circular areas of liquefied gelatine, in which the extraordinarily rapid movement of the individual bacilli can be clearly watched. Gelatine "stab" cultures. The growth at the surface is slow, and resembles the growth of a superficial colony in gelatine plate culture. Growth takes place all the way down the stab, accompanied by slow liquefaction; delicate tuft-like filaments are given off all down the line of the inoculation. These extend more and more deeply into the solid gelatine as growth proceeds. Gradually at the surface liquefaction Bets in, showing itself at first merely by a slight central pitting of the bacterial film. Later, the liquefaction spreads, and the delicate details of growth are lost. Rapid liquefaction takes place nearly if not quite to the foot of the stab and in funnel form.§ Very soon the liquefaction spreads to the walls of the tube and increases rapidly from above downwards as well as from the stab in an outward direction. The liquefied gelatine has a greyish-white translucent appearance, and has also a somewhat flocculent appearance due to aggregation of little masses of bacteria. Very soon the whole contents of the tube are completely liquefied and converted into a greyish-white turbid fluid. Gelatine "streak" cultures. A delicate granular film forms on the surface of the gelatine which is of somewhat limited extent. Liquefaction slowly sets in and shows itself as a longitudinal furrow. After some days the film changes its appearance and shows numberless fine processes radiating outwards and upwards from the central line. Tuft-like processes also extend into the solid gelatine. As liquefaction proceeds all the delicate details of growth become lost. The growth is not characteristic, as the liquefaction is so rapid that the peptonised gelatine runs down the oblique surface to the foot of the tube, and in a few days the whole of the contents are converted into a turbid greyish-white liquid. Gelatine "shake" cultures. No gas bubbles are formed; the gelatine is slowly liquefied. No gas bubbles are formed; the gelatine is rapidly liquefied. Agar plate cultures. In agar plate cultures at 37° C. the growth is so rapid and the colonies spread so much laterally, that frequently the whole plate is covered with a granular dirty yellowish-white film in 24 hours. The spreading edge is often broken up into processes of most varied Bhape, and which frequently form tree-like patterns. In agar plate cultures at 37° C. the growth is so rapid that it is difficult to obtain discrete colonies. The growth is yellowish-white, granular, and often of unequal thickness. The spreading edge has less tendency to form tree-like patterns than in the case of B. mesentericus E. Agar "stab" cultures. In 24 hours at 37° C. there is growth all down the stab, and the surface of the medium is covered with a yellowish-white granular layer, which later may become wrinkled. In 24 hours at 37° C. there is growth all down the stab, and the surface of the medium is covered with a yellowish-white granular layer, which later may become wrinkled. Agar "streak" cultures. In 24 hours at 37° C. a dirty yellowish-white film has covered nearly the whole oblique surface. The spreading edge may extend as irregular processes forming leaf-like patterns. Later the film darkens in colour and becomes wrinkled. In 24 hours at 37° C. a dirty yellowish-white film has covered nearly the whole oblique surface. The spreading edge may be lobed or fissured and of unequal thickness. The film darkens in colour and becomes wrinkled. Potato cultures. The growth is extremely characteristic. At 37° C. in 24 hours the whole surface of the potato is covered with a thin yellowish-white film, which has a characteristic folded, creased and wrinkled appearance. There is an appearance also as of blisters : these dry up, leaving deeply wrinkled skins. The substance of the potato takes on a bright pink colour. Later the film becomes thicker, more deeply pitted and wrinkled, and the colour becomes brown. The growth is extremely characteristic. In 24 hours at 37° C. the whole surface of the potato is covered with a thick greyish-white moist skin, which is thrown into multiple folds, creasings and wrinkles.** The colour rapidly changes from greyish-white to yellow, and then to brown. The growth, if touched with a platinum needle, is found to be held to the potato by a viscous substance which can be drawn out into long threads. Broth cultures. The growth at 37° C. is characteristic even in 24 hours. A greyish-white wrinkled film is formed at the surface, and the liquid below is nearly quite clear. Later the film thickens and becomes deeply pitted and wrinkled. The growth at 37° C. is characteristic even in 24 hours. A greyish-white wrinkled film is formed at the surface, and the liquid below is nearly quite clear. Later the film thickens, and the wrinkled appearance becomes more marked. It acquires a reddish-brown colour, and the liquid below, which remains nearly quite transparent, also takes on a reddish-brown colour. ¶ See fig. 7, Plate II. § See fig. 8, Plate II. ** See fig. 9, Plate III. 36 Litmus milk cultures. In 24 hours at 37° C. slight discolouration has taken place. In 48 hours the liquid is of a dirty yellowish-white colour, with a tinge of red ; no clot. In 72 hours a weak clot has formed, and the liquid near the surface is semitransparent. On gently shaking the tube, a pinkish tinge develops. In five days the clot lies at the foot of the tube as a dirty white mass; above this the liquid is transparent and of a faint yellow colour, which on shakintr changes to a pink tint. In 24 hours at 37° C. the bluish-purple colour of the milk is changed to a dirty yellowish-white; no clot. In 48 hours no clot, but the milk is rapidly becoming transparent. In 72 hours the whole of the contents of the tube are semi-transparent and of a dirty yellowish colour. On gently shaking the tube, the liquid assumes a crushed strawberry colour. Blood serum cultures. At 37° U., and in less than 24 hours, nearly the whole of the oblique surface of the medium has become covered with a deeply wrinkled skin. Later, slow liquefaction sets in, and in about 16 days the blood serum is completely liquefied. At 37° C. decided liquefaction takes place in less than 24 hours, and on the surface of the liquid, at the foot of the tube, a wrinkled skin is formed. Later, the blood serum is completely liquefied. Indol reaction. No indol is formed. No indol is formed. Reduction of nitrates to nitrites. [Broth 5 per cent., KNO3 0.1 per cent., water 94.90 per cent.] Great reduction of nitrates to nitrites in 24 hours at 37° C. No reduction of nitrates to nitrites in 24 hours at 37° C. Remarks. Resembles very closely, if it is not identical with, Bacillus mesentericus ruber. The micro-organism is constantly present in sewage in the form of spores; 10, 20, 30, or more spores per c.c. of London crude sewage may be found. It is present in considerable number in the effluents from the biological filters. It resembles closely B. mesentericus vulgatus, B. mesentericus fuscus, and B. liodermos, and is perhaps most closely allied to, if it is not identical with, B. mesentericus vulgatus. 3.—Sewage Proteus. [An aerobic, non-chromogenic, actively motile, rapidly liquefying bacillus.] Source.—Very abundant in London crude sewage; frequently as many as 100,000 per c.c. of crude sewage. Morphology.*—Small bacilli, with rounded ends; solitary, in pairs, or sometimes in short chains; involution forms may occasionally be seen. Motility.—Actively motile. Spore formation.—No spores are formed. Flagella.†—Each rod is possessed of a single flagellum. Temperature.—The original culture grew better at 20° C. than at 37° C.¶ Gelatine plate cultures.‡—In less than 24 hours at 20° C. the surface colonies appear as delicate granular films of irregular shape. In two days the colonies look like "punched out" circles containing liquefied gelatine, and greyish-white bacterial deposit. The masses of bacteria lying in the liquefied gelatine usually give a mottled appearance to the colonies. Viewed under a low power of the microscope the individual bacilli can be made out, and their active movement watched: the colonies appear darkest centrally and at the circumference, and here and there darker spots may be seen in the liquefied and granular-looking gelatine. The colonies are usually exactly circular in shape with well-defined borders, and no swarming islands" appear to be given off, as in proteus vulgaris. By the third or fourth day the plate is completely liquefied, the gelatine being converted into a turbid greyish-white liquid. Gelatine "stab" cultures. §.—The growth is very characteristic.—In 24 hours at 20° C. liquefaction has occurred all the way down the path of the needle, and minute bubbles of gas may be watched rising through the turbid, greyish-white liquefied gelatine to the surface. In 48 hours the liquefaction is very much more pronounced; numerous bubbles of gas may be seen at the surface, and also bubbles in the solid gelatine. The bacteria collect at the foot of the liquefied portion as a greyish-white deposit. In four or five days the whole of the gelatine is converted into a greyish-white liquid. If such a culture be heated to 80° C. for 20 minutes the bacilli are killed, but if, after cooling, a portion of the fluid be added to another tube containing solid gelatine, the gelatine in this second tube becomes liquefied. Gelatine "streak " cultures.—The gelatine is liquefied so rapidly that all details of growth are lost. Gelatine "shake" cultures.—|| In 24 hours at 20° C. numerous gas bubbles are formed, and the gelatine is liquefied near the surface. Aqar plate cultures.—The growth is not characteristic. The colonies are more or less circular in shape, they are greyish-white in colour, and have a somewhat moist, glistening appearance. Agar "stab" cultures.—There is growth all down the stab; gas bubbles may form in the medium; on the surface the growth is like a surface colony in an agar plate culture. In old cultures the surface growth becomes of a brownish colour. Agar "streak" cultures.—The growth is rapid, but not specially characteristic. A greyish-white layer having a moist glistening appearance is formed, which may extend nearly to the walls of the tube. Potato cultures.—The growth is not characteristic; a slimy, thin, yellowish-white growth appears on the surface of the potato. Broth cultures.—Abundant diffuse cloudy growth in 24 hours at 20° C. Litmus milk cultures.—The growth at 20°C. in litmus milk culture may be described as an acid change from an opaque bluish-purple coloured liquid to a semi-transparent reddish-coloured fluid. The redness is chiefly near the surface, but if the tube be shaken the whole of the contents of the tube assume a crushed strawberry tint. If clotting occurs, it is imperfect in character and possibly is dissolved as soon as it is formed. Blood serum cultures.—Rapid growth, accompanied by liquefaction. Indol reaction.—Usually no indol is formed in broth cultures, but in one such culture, kept for twelve days, a feeble indol reaction was observed. Reduction of nitrates.—Rapid reduction of nitrates to nitrites in 24 hours at 20° C. [Broth, 5 per cent., KNOs 0.1 per cent., water 94.9 per cent.] Remarks.—This organism differs from Proteus vulgaris, and has little or no resemblance either to Proteus mirabilis or to Proteus zenkeri. It differs from Proteus vulgaris in many respects, for example: sewage proteus * See fig. 10, Pate III. † See fig. 11, Plate III. ¶ See, however, notes under heading, Remarks. ‡ See fig. 12, Plate III. § See fig. 13 (6) (c), Plate IV. || Fig. 13 (a), Plate IV. 37 has but one flagellum, whereas Froteus vulgaris is generally stated to bo multi-flagellated; sewage proteus has smaller and shorter rods than Proteus vulgaris-, sewage proteus shows no "swarming islands" unlike Proteus vulgaris. This organism has been called sewage proteus owing to its prevalence in crude sewage, and because of its superficial resemblance to Proteus vulgaris, and to other members of the proteus group. It is not unlikely that this micro-organism is frequently mistaken for the true Proteus vulgaris It also differs in a number of important respects from Bacillus proteus urinae, an organism isolated from the urine of a patient suffering from cystitis by Dr. Horton Smith, and carefully described by him in the Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology, December, 1896. It must not, however, be supposed that Proteus vulgaris is not present in London crude sewage, but that its numbers are not as great as seems to be generally supposed. In figure 1, Plate I., a micro-photograph is shewn of the true proteus, which was isolated from a sample of Crossness raw sewage. The preparation was obtained by making a surface gelatine plate culture of this micro-organism, and then making "impressions" from the "swarming islands" produced by its growth on the surface of the gelatine in 20 hours at 20° C. A culture of "sewage proteus" proved to be very virulent. Thus, 1 c.c. of a 24 hours' broth culture was injected subcutaneously into a guinea-pig. The animal was found dead on the second day, but had probably died on the preceding day. The organism was recovered from the heart's blood in pure culture. [Subsequent work yielded in some measure anomalous results. Thus, as freshly isolated from sewage, "sewage proteus" sometimes grew well at 37° C., and sometimes in an imperfect manner. Moreover, the cultures were in some cases virulent and in others not.] 4.—Bacillus Frondosus. [An aerobic, non-chromogenic, motile, slowly liquefying bacillus.] Source.—London crude sewage: gelatine plate cultures heated to 80° C. for 10 minutes. Morphology.—Large bacilli, with rounded ends ; solitary, in pairs, and in chains of varying length. Motility.—Motile. Spore formation*.—Forms spores readily at the room temperature. Temperature.—No growth at 37° C. Grows fairly rapidly at the room temperature. Gelatine plate cultures†.—The surface colonies appear as white, coarsely granular films of irregular shape, which send out curious processes of varied form. These grotesquely-shaped processes resembles bits of seaweed flattened out. Liquefaction sets in very slowly and shows itself by a slight pitting near the centre of each colony. The deep colonies are not characteristic. Under a low power of the microscope the superficial colonies have a granular and laminated appearance, and show at the spreading edge processes which are of the most varied shapes, and which often form patterns of great delicacy and beaut}-. Gelatine "stab" cultures.—The growth at the surface is like a superficial colony in gelatine plate culture. The growth down the stab is not characteristic. Liquefaction slowly sets in at the surface, and eventually all the delicate details of growth are lost. Gelatine "streak " cultures.—The growth is like an elongated surface colony in plate culture. Briefly, a white coarsely granular film forms on the sloping surface of the medium which peripherally shoots out processes of very irregular shape. Liquefaction first shows itself as a longitudinal and central pitting of the bacterial film. Gelatine "shake " cultures.—No bubbles of gas are formed. Agar plate cultures.—The colonies are white in colour; they do not grow in the same characteristic way as the colonies in gelatine plate culture. Agar "stab" cultures.—Growth occurs all the way down the stab, and at the surface a greyish white-layer is formed of irregular shape which resembles somewhat a surface colony in gelatine plate culture. Agar "streak" cultures.—The growth extends over the surface of the medium as a greyish-white film. The growth at the periphery in some measure simulates the corresponding growth on gelatine. Potato cultures.—The growth is characteristic from a negative point of view as it is of a transparent colourless character. Broth cultures.—Grows slowly; a white bacterial deposit collects at the foot of the tube, leaving the liquid above fairly clear. Litmus milk cultures.—In milk at 20° C. No change is visible in three days. Later the milk turns slightly acid, no clotting is visible even after one month. Blood serum cultures.—At 20° C. a greyish-white, somewhat granular and film-like growth develops in a few days. The edge is irregular. Apparently, no liquefaction takes place. Indol reaction—No indol is formed in broth cultures, after 6 days incubation at 20° C. Reduction of nitrates to nitrites.—No reduction takes place in 4 days at 20°. C. [Broth, 5 per cent., KNO3 0.1 per cent., water 94'9 per cent.] Remarks.—This micro-organism has been compared with the descriptions of all the aerobic, motile, non-chromogenic, liquefying bacteria, and it resembles none of them sufficiently closely to suggest identity. It has been called B. Frondosus because the spreading edge of the colonies sometimes have a leafy appearance. 5.—Bacillus Fusiformis. [An aerobic, non-chromogenic, motile, non-liquefying bacillus.] Source.—London crude sewage: gelatine plate cultures heated to 80° C. for ten minutes. Morphology.—Large bacilli, with rounded ends; solitary, in pairs, and in chains. Motility.—Motile. Spore formation.‡—Forms spores at the room temperature. These are large, and give a spindle-shaped appearance to the cells. Temperature.—No growth at 37° C. Grows slowly at the room temperature. Gelatine plate cultures.—The growth is very slow. The surface colonies are circular, of an opaque porcelainwhite, glistening appearance. The periphery is slightly transparent. By transmitted light the colonies are yellowish in colour. In old cultures the white colour takes on a yellowish tint. The deep colonies are not characteristic. Microscopically, under a low power, no delicate details of growth can be made out. No liquefaction of the gelatine takes place. Gelatine "stab" cultures.—Tardy growth, no liquefaction of the gelatine. A white growth appears along the line of the stab, and on the surface a scanty yellowish-white layer very slowly develops. Gelatine "streak" cultures.—A glistening porcelain-white layer is slowly formed, which is opaque, except at the margins, which are slightly transparent. By transmitted light and by reflected light in old cultures a slight yellowish tint may be seen. The growth does not extend far from the actual line of inoculation. No liquefaction occurs. Gelatine "shake" cultures.—No gas bubbles are formed. Agar plate cultures.—The colonies arc white and more or less circular in shape; the growth is not characteristic. Agar "stab" cultures.—The growth is slow and imperfect. A whitish line appears along the line of the stab, and on the surface a thin white layer slowly develops. Agar "streak" cultures.—A thin whitish layer is slowly formed; the growth is not characteristic. * See fig. 14, Plate IV. † See fig. 15, Plate IV. ‡ See fig. 16, Plate IV. 88 Potato cultures.—A porcelain-white growth slowly developes; afterwards the colour becomes dirty yellowish-white and the bacterial layer becomes unequally thickened. Broth cultures.—The growth is very scanty and not characteristic. Litmus milk cultures.—No clotting occurs, and the change in the medium is hardly visible, even after 16 days. Apparently a feeble acidity of the milk results. Blood serum cultures.—Little or no growth on the surface, even after the lapse of some time; some growth, however, takes place in the fluid at the foot of the tube. Indol reaction.—No indol is formed in broth cultures. Reduction of nitrates to nitrites.—Negative after 12 days at 20° C. [Broth 5 per cent., KNO3 0.1 percent., water 94.9 per cent.] Remarks.—This micro-organism has a somewhat negative character of growth in all the nutrient media ordinarily in use. It has been called B. fusiformis owing to the shape of the spores, spindle-shaped. So far as could be ascertained it belongs to a new species. 6.—Bacillus Subtilissimus. [An aerobic, non-chromogenic, non-motile, non-liquefying bacillus (? micro-coccus).] Source.—Crude sewage. Morphology.*—In most cultures it appears as a large micro-coccus, but if "impression" preparations be made from surface colonies in a gelatine plate, it will be seen that at the spreading edge the elements are distinctly longer than broad, nearer the centre they are oval and frequently united in pairs, and at or about the centre they are perfectly spherical. Motility.—No motility has been observed even in recent broth cultures. Spore-formation.—None. Temperature.—Does not grow at 37° C., but grows with extreme rapidity at 20° C. Gelatine plate cultures.—The deep colonies are not characteristic, either on naked eye examination when viewed with a hand-lens, or when examined under a low power of the microscope. The surface colonies are peculiarly characteristic, and grow so rapidly and extend so widely, that a single colony may cover nearly a whole plate in two days. The growth is film-like in character and extremely thin and transparent. It is dull grey in colour and very faintly granular. When viewed under a low power of the microscope, the appearance is not unlike B. coli, but the details of the growth are so much more delicate that it is difficult to perceive the slight granulation, faint creasing and delicate veining of the bacterial film. The surface colonies are usually of a more or less circular shape, but the spreading edge is nearly always markedly irregular. Gelatine "streak" cultures, ‡—The growth is like an elongated surface colony. In less than 24 hours a delicate film has spread nearly to the walls of the tube. The spreading edge is very irregular, and in older cultures may present a terraced appearance. Gelatine "shake" cultures.—No gas bubbles are formed in the gelatine. Agar "streak" cultures.—A white film is formed on the surface having a markedly irregular edge. The lateral expansion is less than in the case of gelatine cultures. Broth cultures.—Uniform turbidity occurs in 24 hours at 20° C., and a very faint scum forms on the surface. No motility could be made out. Blood serum.—A thin film forms of a faint yellowish-white colour. No liquefaction occurs. Litmus milk cultures.—No visible change in 48 hours at 20° C. Later the purple colour of the milk changes to a reddish purple, and later still to a buff colour. On shaking the tube gently the liquid does not assume a red tint. There is no clotting produced and no transparency of the medium occurs even in old cultures. Indol.—No indol is formed even after 20 days at 20° C. Remarks.—This microbe has been called B. subtilissimus on account of the thin almost gauze-like character of the surface colonies in gelatine plate culture. No micro-organism hitherto described appears to correspond with the above. 7.—Bacillus Subtilis. Sewage Variety A. Sewage Variety B. [An aerobic, non-chromogenic, rapidly liquefying, sporeforming. motile bacillus.] [An aerobic non-chromogenic, rapidly liquefying, sporeforming, motile bacillus.] Source. Crude sewage and effluents from coke-beds. Crude sewage and effluents from coke-beds. Optimum temperature. Grows luxuriantly at 37° C., also at the room temperature. Little or no growth at 37° C., grows luxuriantly at 20° C. Morphology. Large and long bacilli with rounded ends, frequently associated in long chains. Large and long bacilli with rounded ends, frequently associated in long chains. Spore formation. Forms spores readily. Forms spores readily. Motility. Waddling sluggish movement. Waddling sluggish movement. Gelatine plate cultures. Forms in two days at 20° C. circular greyish-white areas of liquid gelatine which rapidly increase in diameter. The white masses of bacteria lying in the liquefied gelatine may present a mottled appearance, or may be arranged in stellate fashion. Under a low power of the microscope (about 80 diam.) the individual bacilli can be clearly seen in the more liquid portion, and their movements watched. At the edge of the colonies the bacilli bore side by side into the nonliquefied gelatine in a highly characteristic way .‡ Rapidly froms greyish-white circles of liquefied gelatine. The masses of bacteria lying in the liquefied gelatine may present a rosette or star - shaped or radiating appearance. Under a low power of the microscope (about 80 diam.) the movement of the individual bacilli can be clearly seen. The parallel arrangement of the bacilli at the periphery of the colonies is absent, or not so well marked as in the case of variety A. A skin forms on the surface of the liquefied gelatine. The growth is not so rapid as in the case of variety A. Sometimes the colonies are not exactly circular in shape. * See fig. 17, Plate V. † Fig. 18, Plate V. ‡ Fig. B, plate VII. 39 Agar "streak" cultures. In two days, at 37° C., an abundant creamy white layer, covering nearly the whole surface, which on close inspection shows numerous minute circular areas where the growth, instead of being opaque, is semi-transparent. In 20 hours, at 20° C., a greyish-white layer, not specially characteristic. In 48 hours, growth somewhat dry and granular looking. In four days, curious wrinkled appearances. Ridges, formed by the unequal rate of growth, or by the contraction of the bacterial skin, stand out from the surface of the medium about one-sixteenth of an inch, and usually are arranged in more or less transverse folds.* Gelatine "stab" cultures. In 2 days, at 20° C., liquefaction has occurred right down to the foot of the stab. White flocculent masses of bacteria sink through the liquefied and grey-coloured gelatine to the foot of the stab. The liquefaction extends rapidly from the line of inoculation outwards as well as from the surface downwards. A scum forms on the surface, but no distinct skin is formed.† Rapid liquefaction all the way down the stab, but as the growth proceeds the liquefaction spreads in cylindrical fashion from above downwards rather than from within outwards from the region of the line of inoculation. A distinct skin forms on the surface, which eventually sinks in the liquefied gelatine.‡ Liquefaction. Rapidly liquefies gelatine and blood serum. Liquefies gelatine and blood serum fairly rapidly. Gas formation. Forms no gas in gelatine "shake" cultures. Forms no gas in gelatine "shake" cultures. Broth cultures. Diffuse cloudiness in 24 hours at 37° C. A scum forms on the surface which readily falls to the foot of the tube on shaking. Diffuse cloudiness: a skin forms on the surface which is brittle and sinks on shaking the tube. Indol. Forms no indol. Forms no indol. Litmus milk cultures. In 2 days, at 37° C., there is complete discoloration and a clot has formed; no redness is visible. In 5 days a white clot occupies about one-third of the bulk of medium, which appears to be slowly peptonised. The liquid surrounding the clot is pale yellow in colour, and semi-transparent without pink coloration. The purple-blue colour of the litmus milk gradually fades, but no clotting or redness occurs. In 8 days the milk is almost transparent and of a pale dirty yellow colour; on shaking the tube the liquid assumes a faint pink tinge. By the 21st day the milk has changed to a semi-transparent dirty yellow liquid; on shaking the tube the contents assume a reddish tint. Potato cultures. In 2 days, at 378 C., a dirty-white layer is formed with a yellowish tint. A white, rather dry-looking coat is formed. Later portions of the growth become upraised, and sometimes present a worm-like appearance. Blood serum cultures. In 24 hours, at 378, a white layer develops, accompanied with liquefaction of the medium. In 20 hours, at 20° C., a thin whitish layer is formed. In 48 hours commencing liquefaction and markedly wrinkled skin.|| Remarks.—Several varieties of B. subtilis occur in sewage. For the purpoee of description I have named these two :—Sewage variety A, and sewage variety B. The fact, however, of the latter organism not growing at 37° C. makes it doubtful whether it should be considered a variety of B. subtilis. 8.—Bacillus Membraneus Patulus. [An aerobic, non-chromogenic, slowly liquefying, spore-forming (?), non-motile bacillus.] Source.—Crude sewage and effluent from coke-beds. Optimum temperature.—Grows well at 37° C., and at the room temperature. Morphology.—A very large bacillus which forms long chains.§ Spore formation.—Old culture resist heating to 80° C. for ten minutes, and the microbe has been found in cultures made from sewage which had previously been heated to 80° C. for ten minutes. A satisfactory doublestained preparation, however, has not been obtained. Motility.—No motility could be made out, even in a 20 hours' broth culture. Gelatine plates.—The surface colonies appear as coarsely granular greyish-white films of somewhat irregular shape. From the spreading edge of the colonies processes extend in a tortuous fashion over the surface of the mediums often forming patterns of great delicacy and beauty. Beneath the surface film-like growth, slow liquefaction of the gelatine occurs. The growth is rapid. Under a low power of the microscope the colonies present a characteristic granular and striated appearance.¶ Oblique gelatine cultures.—In less than two days, at 20° C., a coarsely granular film forms on the surface of the gelatine which spreads rather rapidly and may extend nearly to the walls of the tube. From the spreading edge processes are given off which wind over the surface of the gelatine in a characteristic way. Soon a longitudinal pitting of the bacterial film along the line of inoculation is observed, and later on as liquefaction proceeds, the growth slips down to the foot of the tube, and all delicate details are lost. The growth is like an elongated surface colony in gelatine plate culture. ** Oblique Agar cultures.—In one night, at 37° C., the growth appears as a coarsely granular, semi-transparent, greyish - white film. By the second day the growth is less transparent and less granular looking. In old cultures the surface assumes a tuberculated appearance. Gelatine "stab" cultures.††—The growth varies, as sometimes there is liquefaction down the line of the stab with tuft-like processes extending into the solid medium, and at other times there is almost no liquefaction along the line of inoculation, and the processes extend nearly to the walls of the tube, giving rise to an appearance of great beauty. The growth on the surface is like the growth of a surface colony in a gelatine plate culture. Liquefaction.—Liquefies gelatine, but not rapidly. Produces only very slight liquefaction of blood serum even in cultures kept at 37° C. for 16 days. Gas formation.—Forms no gas in gelatine "shake" cultivations. * Fig. 20, Plate V. § Fig. 21, plate VI. † Fig. A, plate VII. ¶ Fig. F, plate VIII ‡ Fig. C., plate VII., and Fig. 19, plate V. ** Fig. 22, plate VI., and Fig. E, plate VIII. || Fig. D., plate VII. †† Fig. 23, Plate VI. 40 Broth cultures.—Grows very rapidly at 37° C. The cloudiness throughout the medium is flocculent rather than diffuse. An abundant white bacterial deposit collects at the foot of the tube. On the surface a skin is formed, which sinks on shaking the tube, but is re-formed in one night. Indol formation.—Forms no indol in broth cultures. Litmus milk cultures.—In 24 hours, at 37° C., the milk has become slightly discoloured; later, a weak gelatinous clot is formed, and the medium turns faintly acid. Potato cultures.—The growth is not characteristic; a dirty, faint yellowish-grey coloured growth in 24 hours at 37° C. Blood serum cultures.—A granular greyish-white film is formed. Only very slight liquefaction occurs, even in old cultures. Reduction of nitrates.—Great reduction of nitrates to nitrites in one night at 37° C. (Bouillon 5 per cent. KNO3 0.1 per cent). Remarks.—This organism does not appear to resemble at all closely the descriptions of any of the bacteria found in sewage and elsewhere. On account of its spreading, film-like character of growth, it has been termed B. membraneus patulus. 9.—Bacillus Capillareus. [An aerobic, non-chromogenic, rapidly liquefying, spore-forming (?), motile bacillus.] Source.—Crude sewage and effluents from coke beds. Optimum temperature.—Grows luxuriantly at 37° C., also at room temperature. Morphology*—A large bacillus, forming long chains. Spore formation.—Old cultures resist heating to 80° C., and this microbe commonly occurs in cultivations made from sewage which have previously been heated to 80° C. for 10 minutes. A satisfactory double-stained preparation, however, has not been obtained. Motility.—This organism is motile. Gelatine plates cultures.†—The colonies in the depth have a characteristic fluffy appearance. They rapidly increase in size, and reaching the surface quickly liquefy the gelatine. The growth is filamentous in the depth, and on the surface from the spreading edge of the colonies, delicate film-like processes are given off, which extend over the surface of the medium to form irregular patterns. Later, the finer details of growth are lost, owing to the rapid liquefaction of the gelatine, the colonies eventually appearing as large, more or less circular, areas of liquefied gelatine with greyish-white contents. Agar "streak" cultures.—In 24 hours an opaque-white growth of limited extent appears, which along the spreading edge is slightly transparent and granular-looking. Later, the growth may extend laterally to cover a wide extent of surface. Gelatine "streak" cultures.—A longitudinal furrow appears due to the liquefaction of the gelatine, but from the edge of the furrow delicate processes may be seen extending in irregular fashion over the surface of the solid gelatine. The furrow is nearly clear as the bacteria slip down the sloping surface with the liquid gelatine, and collect at the foot of the tube. Soon all details of growth are lost, owing to the progressive liquefaction of the medium. Gelatine "stab" cultures.—Liquefaction takes place in funnel form, and extends down the stab to an extent varying in different cultures. Along the line of the inoculation feathery processes are given off, which extend into the solid gelatine for a short distance. The masses of bacteria gradually sink to the foot of the liquefied medium. Liquefaction.—Liquefies gelatine rapidly, blood serum less rapidly. Gas formation.—No gas is formed in gelatine "shake" cultures. Sometimes the colonies in "shake" cultures have a beautiful star-shaped appearance, but at other times they are globular. Broth cultures.—In broth at 37° C. there is diffuse cloudiness with flocculent masses scattered throughout the medium. Later, a skin forms on the surface, and an abundant white bacterial deposit collects at the foot of the tube, leaving the liquid above fairly clear. Indol.—No indol is formed in broth cultures. Litmus milk cultures.—No decided change, even after 72 hours at 37° C. In five days weak gelatinous clot, but no apparent acidity. Potato cultures.—By the second day at 37° C. a fairly abundant creamy coating has formed on the surface of the medium, and later this becomes of a dirty-brown colour. Blood serum cultures.—By the second day, at 37° C., a white-coloured growth, having no special characters. Liquefaction slowly sets in, and by the 16th day is practically complete. Reduction of nitrates.—Reduces nitrates to nitrites. Remarks.—This microbe has been called B. capillareus because of the hair-like character of its growth in gelatine plate cultures. It resembles in some respects B. mycoides, B. subtilis and B. mesentericus, but not sufficiently to suggest a similarity of species. VI—DESCRIPTION OF MICRO-PHOTOGRAPHS AND DIAGRAMMATIC DRAWINGS ACCOMPANYING REPORT. Fig. 1.—Proteus vulgaris; impression preparation from "swarming islands " on gelatine; 20 hours' growth at 20° C. x 3,000. Fig. 2.—B. enteritidis sporogenes (Klein); microscopic double-stained preparation from a serum culture, showing spores. X 2,000. Fig. 3.—B. mesentericus sewage variety E; microscopic preparation from a 20 hours' agar culture at 20° C. X 1,000. Fig. 4.— B. mesentericus sewage variety E; microscopic preparation stained by V. Ermengem's method and showing numerous flagella, from a 20 hours' agar culture at 20° C. x 1,000. Fig. 5.—B. mesentericus sewage variety I; microscopic preparation from a 20 hours' agar culture at 20° C. x 1,000. Fig. 6.—B. mesentericus sewage variety I; microscopic preparation stained by V. Ermengem's method, showing numerous flagella; from a 20 hours' agar culture at 20° C. x 1,000. Fig. 7.—B. mesentericus sewage variety I; gelatine plate culture. About natural size. Fig. 8.—B. mesentericus sewage variety I; gelatine "stab" cultures. From left to right—three days', two days', one day's growth at 20° C. About natural size. Fig. 9.—B. mesentericus sewage variety I; potato culture, one day's growth at 37° C. Very slightly enlarged. Fig. 10.—"Sewage proteus." Microscopic preparation from an agar culture; 24 hours' growth at 20° C. X 1,000. Fig. 11.—"Sewage proteus." Microscopic preparation stained by V. Ermengem's method, showing a single flagellum at one end of each rod; from a 24 hours' growth agar culture at 20° C. X 1,000. * Fig. 24, plate VI. † Fig. G, plate VIII. 41 Fig 12.—"Sewage proteus"; gelatine plate culture, two days' growth at 20° C. About natural size. Fig. 13.—"Sewage proteus." From left to right—gelatine "shake" culture, 24 hours at 20° C.; gelatine "stab" culture, 24 hours' growth at 20° C.; gelatine "stab" culture, 48 hours' growth at 20° C. About natural size. Fig. 14.—B. frondosus. Microscopic double-stained preparation from an agar culture showing spores, x 1,000. Fig. 15.— B. frondosus. Gelatine plate culture. About natural size. Fig. 16.—B. fusiformis. Microscopic double-stained preparation, showing spores. X 1,000. Fig. 17.—B. subtilissimus. Impression preparation from a gelatine plate culture. X 1,000. Fig. 18.—B. subtilissimus. Gelatine "streak" cultures, 24 hours' growth at 20° C. Natural size. Fig. 19.— B. subtilis. Sewage variety B. gelatine "stab" cultures. 1 day's and 3 days' growth at 20° C. About natural size. Fig. 20.—B. subtilis. Sewage variety B. Oblique agar culture, 3 days' growth at 20° C. About natural size. Fig. 21.—B. membraneus patulus. Impression preparation from gelatine plate culture. X 1,000. Fig. 22.—B. membraneus patulus. Oblique gelatine culture. About natural size. Fig. 23.—B. membraneus patulus. Gelatine "stab" culture, 3 days' growth at 20° C. About natural size. Fig. 24.—B. capillareus. Impression preparation from a gelatine plate culture, 20 hours' growth at 20° C. X 1,000. Fig. A.—B. subtilis, sewage variety A. Gelatine "stab" culture— (а) Two days' growth at 20° C. (b) Three days' growth at 20° C. (c) Four days' growth at 20° C. Fig. B.—B. subtilis, sewage variety A. Colony in gelatine plate, under low power of microscope— Two days' growth at 20° C. Fig. C.—B. subtilis, sewage variety B. Gelatine "stab" cultures— (a) Two days' growth at 20° C. (b)The same as (a) but at a later stage. Fig. D.—B. subtilis, sewage variety B. Blood serum culture— 48 hours' growth at 20° C. Fig. E.—B. membraneus patulus. Oblique gelatine culture. Fig. F.—B. membraneus patulus. Showing the appearance, under a low power of the microscope, of the delicate film-like processes which extend over the surface of the medium in gelatine plate cultures. Fig. G.—B capillareus. Under a low power of the microscope. (а) Deep-seated colony in gelatine, 20 hours' growth at 20° C. (b) Colony partly deep and partly superficial, 20 hours' growth at 20° C. (c) Colony at a later stage of growth, and after liquefaction had set in. Diagram 2—Percentage purification of crude sewage by coke-beds. These percentages have been calculated from the oxygen absorbed in four hours from permanganate by the raw sewage and by the effluent respectively. Daily averages— Diagram 3, showing the total number of bacteria in 1 cc. of Crossness crude sewage (ten samples); in 1 cc. of effluent from 4-foot coke-bed (eight samples); and in 1 cc. of effluent from 6-foot coke-bed (two samples). effluent from 6-foot coke-bed (two samples). Diagram 6. showing, as regards Crossness crude sewage, the percentage deviation from the mean in 10 samples examined bacteriologically for the total number of bacteria, the number of spores of bacteria, and the number of liquefying bacteria. Diagram 7, showing, as regards the effluents from the 4-foot and 6-foot coke-beds, the percentage deviation from the mean in eight samples and two samples respectively, examined bacteriologically for the total number of bacteria, the number of spores of bacteria, and the number of liquefying bacteria. Diagram 8, showing the number of spores of B. Enteritidis Sporogenes (Klein) in 1 cc. of Crossness crude sewage (eleven samples); in 1 cc. of effluent from 4-foot coke-bed (ten, samples); in I cc. of effluent from 6-foot coke-bed (five samples); and in 1 cc. of effluent from laboratory coke-bed (effluent from 6-foot coke-bed again treated in laboratory at Crossness—four samples). [???] sewage (ten samples); in 1 cc of effluent from 4-foot coke-bed (eight samples); and in 1 cc. of effluent from 6-foot coke-bed (two samples). [Calculated from the number of colonies in phenol gelatine plate culture containing 0.00001 cc. sample, which were indistinguishable from B. Coli in the characters of their growth.] VII.—FURTHER BACTERIOLOGICAL RECORDS FROM AUGUST 9th TO DECEMBER 31st, 1898 Addendum A.—Showing the total number of bacteria in 1 c.c. ot Crossness crude sewage: and in 1 c.c. of effluents from 4-ft., 6-ft. (primary), and 6-ft. (secondary) Coke-bed. Total number of bacteria in 1 c.c. Date. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from 4-ft. Coke-hod Effluent from 6-ft. (primary) Cote-bed Effluent from 6-ft. (secondary) Coke-bed 1898. August 19 5,800,000 3,400,000 — „ 24 4,100,000 — 5,700,000 — September 14 8,000,000 3,400,000 — — „ 21 8,600,000 — 7,200,000 — 28 7,500,000 7,500,000 — — October 5 10,500,000 — 8,000,000 — „ 12 4,000,000 4,200,000 — — „ 21 8,000,000 — 15,800,000 — „ 26 5,200,000 — — 3,100,000 November 9 7,800,000 8,800,000 — — „ 16 5,800,000 . — 5,300,000 — „ 23 8,600,000 — — 4,500,000 „ 30 13,500,000 5,400,000 — — December 7 5,600,000 — 4,000,000 — „ 14 19,500,000 — — 5,300,000 „ 21 7,400,000 6,300,000 — — Addendum B, showing the number of bacteria causing liquefaction of gelatine in 1 cc. of Crossness crude sewage ; and in 1 cc. of effluents from 4-foot, 6-foot (primary), and 6-foot (secondary) Coke beds. Number of bacteria causing liquefaction of gelatine in 1 cc.— Date. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from 4-foot Coke-bed effluent from 6-foot (primary) Coke-bed Effluent from 6-foot (secondary) Cokebed. 1898. August 19th 600.000 400,000 — — „ 24th 600,000 — 1,100,000 — September 14th 700,000 700,000 — — „ 21st 1,200,000 — 1,100,000 — „ 28th 1,200,000 1,200,000 — — October 5th 2,400,000 — 600,000 — „ 12th 700,000 1,200,000 — — „ 21st 1,000,000 — 1,000,000 — „ 26th 700,000 — — 500,000 November 9th 1,900,000 1,400,000 — — „ 16th 1,600,000 — 1, MX), 000 — „ 23rd 900,000 — — 400,000 „ 30th 900,000 500,000 — — December 7th 1,400,000 - 900,000 — „ 14th 1,400,000 — — 1,600,000 „ 21st 2,200,000 600,000 — — Addendum C.—Showing the number of spores of bacteria in 1 c.c. of Crossness crude sewage; and in 1 c.c. of effluent from 4-ft., 6-ft. (primary), and 6-ft. (secondary) Coke-bed. Number of Spores of Bacteria in 1 c.c. Date. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from 4-ft. Coke-bed Effluent from 6-ft. (primary) Coke-bed Effluent from 6-ft. (secondary) Coke-bed[/##] 1898. August 19 220 200 „ 4 170 — 180 — September 14 • • — — „ 21 250 — 190 — „ 28 260 490 — — October 5 200 — 130 — „ 12 320 240 — — „ 21 340 — 420 — „ 26 200 — — 220 November 9 150 140 — — „ 16 240 — 180 — „ 23 510 — — 320 „ 30 440 310 — — December 7 70 — 170 — „ 14 800 — — 420 „ 21 270 - 140 — — *The rapid liquefaction of the gelatine prevented accurate counting. Addendum D.—Showing the number of B. coli (or closely allied forms) in 1 c.c. of Crossness crude sewage (16 samples); in 1 c.c. of effluent from 4-ft. coke-bed (7 samples); in 1 c.c. of effluent from 6-ft. (primary) coke-bed (6 samples); and in 1 c.c. of effluent from 6-ft. (secondary) coke-bed (2 samples). [Calculated from the number of colonies indistinguishable from B. coli in phenol gelatine plate cultures containing 0.00001 c.c. of sample.] Number of B. coli (or closely allied forms) in 1 c.c. Date. Crude sewage. Effluent from 4-ft. coke-bed. Effluent from 6-ft. primary coke-bed. Effluent from 6-ft. secondary coke-bed. 1898. August 19 100,000 None in 0.00001 c.c. „ 24 300,000 — 400,000 — September 14 600,000 400,000 — — „ 21 1,600,000 — 700,000 — „ 28 1,000,000 900,000 — — October 5 1,200,000 — 1,300,000 — „ 12 800,000 500,000 — — „ 21 800,000 — 800,000 — „ 26 None in 0.00001 c.c. — — None in 0.00001 c.c. November 9 400,000 400,000 — — „ 16 300,000 — 500,000 — „ 28 600,000 — — 100,000 „ 30 600,000 200,000 — — December 7 400,000 — 200,000 — „ 14 400,000 — — 100,000 „ 21 500,000 600,000 — — Addendum E.—Showing the number of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes (klein) in 1 c.c. or crossness crude sewage (17 samples); in 1 c.c. in emdem from coke-deu (17 samples); in 1 c.c. of effluent from 6-ft. (primary) coke-bed (17 samples); in 1 c.c of effluent from laboratory vessel (effluent from 6-ft. coke-bed again treated in laboratory) (2 samples); and in 1 c.c. of effluent from 6-ft. secondary coke-bed (15 samples). Number ok spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes (Klein) in 1 c.c Date. Crude sewage. Effluent from 4-ft. coke-bed. Effluent from 6-ft. primary coke-bed. Effluent from laboratory vessel (6-ft; coke-bed effluent again treated). Effluent from 6-ft. secondary coke-bed. 1898. Aug. 19 + 0-1 & o.oi + 0.1 & 0.01 C.C. + 0.1 + 0.1 — „ 24 +0.1 & 001 ; —0.001 c.c. + 01 & 0 01 c.c. + 0.1,0.01; —0.001 c.c. + 01 ; —0.01 c.c. — Sept. 14 +0.1, 0.01 & 0.001 c.c. + 0.1, 0.01; —0.001 c.c. + 0.1; —0.01 c.c. — +0.1 & 0.01 c.c. „ 21 +0.1, 0.01 & 0.001 c.c. +0.1 & 0.01 c.c. +01, 0.01; —0.001 c.c. — + 0.1 & 0 01 c.c. „ 28 +0.1, 0.01; —0.001 c.c. + 0.1, 0.01; —0.001 c.c. +0.1 & 0.01 c.c. — +0.1 & 0.01 c.c. Oct. 5 + 0.1, 0.01; —0.001 c.c. +01 & 0.01 c.c. + 0.1, 0.01; —0.001 c.c. — + 0.1 & 0.01 c.c. ,, 12 +0.1, 0.01 & 0.001 c.c. +0.1,0.01 & 0.001 c.c. +0.1 & 0.01 c.c. — + 0.1; —0.01 c.c. 21 +0.1, 0.01; 0.001 c.c. +0.1 & 0.0l c.c. + 0.1, 0.01; —0.001 c.c. — + 0.1 & 0.01 c.c. „ 26 + 0.1, 001; —0.001 c.c. —0.1 & 0.01 c.c. +0.1 & 0.01 c.c. — +0.1, 0.01 & 0.001 c.c. Nov. 2 +0.1 c.c. +0.1 c.c. +0.1 c.c. — + 0.1 c.c. 9 +.0.1,0.01 & 0.001 c.c. +0.1,0.01 & 0.001 c.c. + 0.1 & 0.01 c.c. — +0.1 & 0.01 c.c. „ 16 +0.1, 0.01 & 0.001 c.c. +0.1 & 0.01 c.c. + 0.1, 0.01; —0.001 c.c. — +01; —0.01 c.c. „ 23 +0.1,0.01 & 0.001.c.c. +0.1 & 0.01 c.c. +0.1 & 0.01 c.c. — +0.1, 0.01; —0.001 c.c. „ 30 +0.1, 0.01 & 0.001 c.c. +0.1, 0.01; —0.001 c.c. +0.1 & 0.01 c.c. — + 0.l & 0.01 c.c. Dec. 7 +0.1 ; —0.01 & 0.0001 c.c. +0.1 & 0.01 c.c. +0.1, 0.01 ; —0.001 c.c. — +0.1; —0.01 c.c. „ 14 +01, 0.01; —0.001 c.c. +0.1 & ? 0.01 c.c. +01 & ? 0.01 c.c. — +0.1, 0.01; —0-001 c.c. 21 +0.1, 0.01 & 0.001 c.c. +0.1,0.01 & 0.001 c.c. ? 0.1; —0.01 c.c. — ? 0.1; — 0.01 c.c. The sign + signifies the presence and the sign — the absence of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes (Klein). PLATE I. Fig. 1—Proteus vulgaris. Impression preparation from "swarming islands" on gelatine; 20 hours'growth at 20° C. x 3,000. Fig. 2—B. enteritidis sporogenes (Klein). Microscopic double-stained preparation, from a serum culture, showing spores x 2,000. Fig. 3—B. mesentericus. Sewage variety E. Microscopic preparation from a 20 hours' agar culture at 20° C. x 1,000. Fig. 4—B. mesentericus. Sewage variety E. Microscopic preparation stained by V. Ermengem's method, showing numerous flagella, from a 20 hours' agar culture at 20° C. x 1.000. PLATE II. Fig. 5—B. mesentericus. Sewage variety I. Microscopic preparation from a 20 hours' agar culture at 20 C. X 1,000. Fig. 6—B. mesentericus. Sewage variety I. Microscopic preparation stained by V. Ermengem's method, showing numerous flagella'; from a 20 hours' agar culture at 20° C. x 1.000. Fig. 7—B. mesentericus. Sewage variety I. Gelatine plate culture, about natural size. Fig. 8—B. mesentericus. Sewage variety I. Gelatine "stab" cultures, about natural size— (a) Three days' growth at 20° U. (h) Two days' growth at 20° C. (c) One days' growth at 20° C. - . PLATE III. Fig. 9—B. mesentericus. Sewage variety I. Potato culture, one day's growth at 37° C., very slightly enlarged. Fig. 10—"Sewage proteus." Microscopic preparation from an agar culture; 24 hours' growth at 20° C. X 1,000. Fig. 11—"Sewage proteus." Microscopic preparation stained by V. Ermengem's ratthod, showing one flagellum at the end of each rod ; from a 24 hours' growth agar culture at 20° C. x 1,000. Fig. 12—" Sewage proteus." Gelatine plate culture, two days' growth at 20° C., about natural size. PLATE IV. Fig. 13—" Sewage protens." About natural size— (а) Gelatine " shake " culture. '24 hours' growth at '20° C. (б) Gelatine " stab " culture. 24 hours' growth at 20° C. (c) Gelatine " stab " culture. 48 hours' growth at 20° C. Fig. 14—B. frondosus. Microscopic doublestained preparation from an agar culture showing spores x 1,000. Fig. 15—B. frondosus. Gelatine plate culture, about natural size. Fig. 16—B. fusiformis. Microscopic double-stained preparation, showing spores x 1,000. ' . i: . ?. PLATE V. Fig. 17—B. subtilissimus. Impression preparation from a gelatine plate culture x 1,000. Fig. 18—B. subtilissimus. Gelatine " streak " cultures, 24 hours' growth at 20° C., natural size. Fig. 19—B. subtilis. Sewage variety B. Gelatine " stab " cultures, about natural size— (a) One day's growth at 20° C. (b) Three days' growth at 20° C. Fig. 20—B. subtilis. Sewage variety B. Oblique agar culture, 3 days' growth at 20° C., about natural size. PLATE VI. Fig. 21 — B. membraneus patulus. Impression preparation from a gelatine plate culture x 1,000. Fig. 22—B. membraneus patulus. Oblique gelatine culture, about natural size. Fie. 23—B. membraneus patulus. Gelatine "stab" culture, 3 days' growth at 20° C., about natural size. Fig. 24—b. capillareus. Impression preparation from a gelatine plate culture, 20 hours' growth at 20° C. X 1,000. PLATE VII. Fig. A.— B. subtilis. Sewage variety A. Gelatine "stab" cultures— (a) Two days' growth at 20° C. (b) Three days' growth at 20° C. (c) Four days' growth at 20° C. Fig. B.—B. subtilis. Sewage variety A. Colony in a gelatine plate under a low power of the microscope. Two days' growth at 20° C. (Diagrammatic.) Fig. C.—B. subtilis. Sewage variety B. Gelatine "stab" cultures— (а) Two days' growth at 20° C. (b) The same at a later stage. Fig. D.—B. subtilis. Sewage variety B. Blood serum culture. Forty-eight hours' growth at 20° C. (Diagrammatic.) PLATE VIII. Fig. E.—B. membraneus patulus. Oblique gelatine culture. Fig. F.—B. membraneus patulus. Showing the appearance under a low power of the microscope, of the delicate film-like processes which extend over the surface of the medium in gelatine plate cultures. (Diagrammatic.) Fig. G.— R. capillareus. Under a low power of the microscope— (а) Deep-seated colony in gelatine. Twenty hours' growth at 20° C. (b) Colony partly deep and partly superficial. Twenty hours' growth at 20° C (c) Colony at a later stage of growth and after liquefaction had set in. (Diagrammatic.) London County Council. BACTERIAL TREATMENT OF CRUDE SEWAGE (SUPPLEMENT TO SECOND REPORT). by Dr. CLOWES and Dr. HOUSTON. NOTES ON THE DEPOSIT WHICH ACCUMULATES on the COKE FRAGMENTS of THE COKE-BEDS AT BARKING AND CROSSNESS. presented by PROFESSOR FRANK CLOWES, D.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C. (Chief Chemist to the Council), To the Main Drainage Committee of the Council, On October 26th, 1899. JAS. TRUSCOTT & SON, PRINTERS, SUFFOLK LANE, CANNON STREET, E C. 3 DIVISION I—GENERAL. BY PROFESSOR FRANK CLOWES, D.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C. (iChief Chemist to the Council). 1.—Aeration of Coke-beds. 2.—Microscopical Examination of the Deposit on the Coke. 1.—Aeration of COKE-BEDS. The preliminary experiments which indicated that the aeration of the coke-beds was satisfactory (Second Report, page 9) have been repeated, and the new results fully corroborate those which were quoted in the second report. 2.—Deposit on the coke. It was stated in the Second Report [page 6 (d)] that "the surface of each piece of coke had in course of time become covered with soft matter": and it was ascertained that this matter contained some fine coke particles and sand grains, cotton and woollen fibres and diatoms, but consisted largely of chaff, straw, and woody fibre. As this deposit upon the coke increased, the sewage capacity of the coke-bed decreased. A series of gaugmgs of capacity of the thirteen-foot coke-bed showed that the decrease of capacity was proceeding at the rate of one per cent. of the original capacity per week. As this threatened a short life to each coke-bed when it was dealing with raw sewage, experiments have been undertaken with the view of preventing, or at any rate considerably retarding, the choking of the cokebed. As has been already stated, the matter which was deposited upon the coke consisted largely of cellulose (chaff, straw, and woody fibre). Cellulose is known to be only very slowly acted upon by bacteria. It seemed advisable, therefore, to attempt the separation of these cellulose matters from the raw sewage before it was introduced into the coke-beds. A few rough preliminary experiments were made in order to ascertain whether this matter could be separated by sedimentation without separating the putrescible matters of the sewage. In the first experiment the raw sewage was allowed to flow, on its way to the coke-bed, through a wooden trough which had several cross divisions reaching half-way from the bottom to the top. In this trough the matter which separated by sedimentation consisted almost wholly of particles of chaff, straw, and woody fibre. This sediment remained perfectly inoffensive when kept in the moist or in the dry condition. The dry matter burned readily when it was kindled. The portion deposited at the entrance to the trough contained about 52 per cent. of combustible matter, whilst that deposited near the end of the trough contained about 70 per cent. This result appears to indicate that the waterlogged cellulose matters may be separated by sedimentation, and may subsequently be dealt with in a furnace or destructor. In order to ascertain how far this process of rapid sedimentation prevented the choking of the coke-bed, another preliminary experiment was made by feeding the raw sewage into the cokebed through a tank. The sediment thus obtained was not foul. The rate of choking of the cokebed was reduced from about 1 per cent. per week of its original capacity to 0.64 per cent. A further trial is now being made by filling the coke-bed through a settling trough; and in this trough the rate of flow of the sewage will be varied, with the view of ascertaining the rate which is most suitable for depositing grit and cellulose without allowing deposition of fæecal putrescible matters. Note.—In the Second Report on the Bacterial Treatment of Crude Sewage, p. 8, line 6, it will be understood that the statement "the volume ot the coke amounts to 960 cubic feet," includes the air spaces of the coke, and that these volumes are together equal to 960 cubic feet. 4 DIVISION II—BACTERIOLOGICAL. BY A. C. HOUSTON, M.B., D.Sc. Notes on the Deposit upon the Coke in the Coke-beds. On May 11th, 1899, samples of coke from the Barking bed were submitted to examination. The coke was found to be coated with a black-coloured slimy deposit, free from objectionable smell, and almost odourless. The deposit, which was readily detached from the surface of the coke, was examined. When looked at under a low power of the microscope it was found to be composed largely of minute particles of coke and sand,* together with, apparently, imperfectly disintegrated animal and vegetable matter. This organic matter is probably of such a nature as to resist the action of bacteria for a very considerable time, if not almost indefinitely. Infusoria, diatoms and minute worms of different kinds were present, but the sewage fungus was not observed to be present to any extent. A portion stained with the usual aniline dyes (gentian violet, methylene blue, &c.) showed that bacteria (reacting to such stains) were not present in the number that might have been anticipated. On diluting the deposit largely with sterile water and making cultures therefrom, it was found that the number of bacteria per gramme of deposit was 1,800,000. This number of microbes, large as it may appear, would weigh only a minute fraction of a gramme, so that it is evident that the number of living bacteria do not in themselves account in any way for the deposit. The writer has made experiments on this subject and has found that 1,800,000 typhoid bacilli weigh only 0'0000147 gramme. The number of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes was found to be at least 10,000, but less than 100,000 per gramme of deposit. The character of the microbes appearing in the cultures differed somewhat from those found in crude sewage. For example: There was an increase in the number of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes (Klein), and a decrease in the number of B. coli. Proteus-like germs were present in abundance; many being of P. mirabilis type. Further, B. arborescens and an allied form were present in considerable numbers. An organism apparently identical with B. prodigiosus was also isolated. It is perhaps worthy of note that a guinea-pig inoculated with some of the deposit developed an abscess at the site of inoculation, and when this abscess was opened some weeks later the same characteristic red-colour-forming bacillus was among others isolated from the pus. Two mice, inoculated subcutaneously with a small portion of the deposit, died with all the characteristic symptoms of tetanus. Microscopic cover-glass preparations were made from the seat of the wounds: numerous bacilli showing drum-stick spore-formation, and indistinguishable from bacillus tetani, were noted. A pure cultivation of the tetanus bacillus was not obtained, but two anaerobic microbes showing terminal spore-formation were isolated from the seat of the wound. One of these liqufied gelatine, the other did not. They appeared to be identical with two microorganisms isolated by direct anaerobic culture from soil by the writer. + It has been stated that when the deposit was stained with the aniline dyes ordinarily in use only a limited number of bacteria reacted to the stain. But in addition to ordinary staining, specific staining was resorted to, and with the following results— The deposit was mixed with sterile water, and cover-glass preparations were made. These were stained with hot carbol-fuchsin, thoroughly decolourised in 33 per cent. nitric acid, and counterstained with methylene blue. It may here be explained that this is the specific staining reaction for the tubercle bacillus, and that all other organisms except tubercle, are stained blue by this method, the tubercle bacillus alone resisting decoloration with the acid, and therefore alone retaining the bright red colour of the carbol-fuchsin stain. There are, however, a few exceptions to this rule, namely, the leprosy bacillus, and certain other organisms (some pathogenic, others non-pathogenic) of recent discovery in milk, fatty and other matters, which the Germans have called "acid-fast" bacteria. Now on staining in the above manner a large number of cover-glass preparations of the deposit, it was found that a considerable number of bacteria retained the red stain after treatment with 33 per cent. nitric acid. Moreover, many of these bacteria were indistinguishable morphologically from the tubercle bacillus, and were frequently arranged in small clumps. Some, however, were shorter and plumper, and others took the red stain more deeply than the tubercle bacillus. Nevertheless, the fact remains that in specific staining reaction, in their arrangement in little clumps, in their appearance as small thin beaded and curved rods, some of the bacteria resembled the tubercle bacillus so closely as to suggest a similarity of species.§ It does not follow from the above that these microbes, whatever their nature, were alive, for micro-organisms which have lost their vitality may nevertheless react to stains. Yet, on the other hand, it might well be the case that while the majority were dead some still retained their vitality, and it might even be true that they were capable not only of remaining dormant, but also of multiplying in the coke-beds. Before proceeding to describe certain experiments carried out on animals, it is of advantage * See fig. 1. † Ed. Med. Journal, Nov., 1893. § See figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7. 5 to record the results of further examinations of the deposit upon the coke, and also the examination of the crude sewage, and of the effluents from the coke-beds. On May 30th some more coke was obtained from the coke-beds at Barking, and on examination the same " acid-fast " bacteria were noted. On May 30th, 20 c.c. of the effluent (dated 16th May) from the thirteen-foot coke-bed at Crossness were centrifugalised and the deposit stained as above. The result was negative. On June 1st, 1899, 50 c.c. of Crossness crude sewage and 50 c.c. of the thirteen-foot cokebed effluent were centrifugalised and stained as before. The result was negative. On June 7th, 1899, some coke was obtained from the Crossness four-foot coke-bed (one foot from the surface). Scrapings from the surface of the coke were mixed with a little water and stained as previously. A positive result was obtained, but the "acid-fast" bacteria were for the most part shorter and plumper than the tubercle bacillus. On June 7th, 1899, 1,000 c.c. of Crossness crude sewage, and 1,000 c.c of the thirteen-foot coke-bed effluent were in each case placed in a sedimentation apparatus. The following day the deposit (about 4 c.c.) was, in each case, further centrifugalised and thereafter stained, as in the previous experiments. The result was negative as regards the crude sewage, but in the case of the effluent a few "acid-fast" bacteria were noted. It may be worthy of note that the other bacteria, which, by this staining process are, as has been explained, coloured blue, are not chiefly bacillary in form. Most of them appear as cocci, frequently arranged in zooglœa-like masses, and also as long chains of cocci (strepto-cocci) extending often right across the field of the microscope. Numerous preparations subsequently made show that either cocci, or rods so short and rounded at their ends as to simulate cocci, predominate in microscopic stained specimens made from sewage and effluents, and not, as might have been imagined, distinct bacillary or rod-shaped forms. On June 15th, 1899, samples of coke from the four-foot coke-bed (one foot from surface) and from the thirteen-foot coke-bed (six feet from surface) were examined as previously. A positive result was obtained, but the "acid-fast" bacteria were somewhat short and plump in appearance. They were usually collected together in little clumps. On June 23rd, 1899, some of the deposit from Crossness crude sewage, which collects in the trough close to the pumping plant, was examined as above. Here a large number of "acid-fast" bacteria were noted, many of which closely resembled the tubercle bacillus.* On June 27th, 1899, 20 c.c. of Crossness crude sewage and of the thirteen-foot coke-bed effluent (dated June 20th, 1899) were centrifugalised in each case, and the deposit stained as before. In both "acid-fast" bacteria were found, and apparently most in the effluent. The bacteria were usually arranged in clumps, and the short, plump forms predominated. On June 30th, 30 c.c. of Crossness crude sewage and of the thirteen-foot coke-bed effluent (dated June 27) were centrifugalised in each case, and the deposit stained. A negative result was recorded as regards the crude sewage, but in the preparation of the deposit from the effluent a few short, plump, red-stained rods were observed. On July 18th, 1899, 50 c.c. of Crossness crude sewage and of the thirteen-foot coke-bed effluent were centrifugalised and the deposit stained, as in previous experiments. In the case of the crude sewage, after prolonged searching, a few short, almost egg-shaped red-stained bacteria were found. But in the effluent little difficulty was experienced in finding "acid-fast" bacteria. On July 26th, 50 c.c. of Crossness crude sewage and of the thirteen-foot coke-bed effluent were centrifugalised and the deposit stained. In the effluent red-stained bacteria were found without any difficulty, but in the case of the crude sewage the diagnosis was doubtful. Summarising these results it may be said that the deposit accummulating on the coke in the bacterial beds contains "acid-fast" bacteria in large numbers. Similarly if a sufficient quantity of the crude sewage and effluents from the bacterial beds be centrifugalised and the deposit stained as for tubercle bacilli, the same red-stained bacteria are found in the preparations. Particularly is this the case as regards the effluent. As regards the experiments on animals, it is to be noted that the amount of deposit from the coke, sewage, or effluents introduced into the animal was, of necessity, small, so as to avoid a rapidly fatal result from the pathogenic bacteria habitually present in the materials used. Had it been possible to employ larger quantities different results might have been obtained. Without going into detail it may be said that none of the guinea-pigs died of true tuberculosis. It is not proposed to speak here of other diseases produced by the injections, or of such diseases as might be judged to be tubercle on incomplete examination. There was, however, one notable exception, but here the deposit (which contained many "acid-fast" bacteria) was not obtained from either the Barking or Crossness cokebeds. Nevertheless, it was from a coke bacterial-bed, which had been treated with sewage for a considerable time, and worked on similar lines to those adopted at the Northern and Southern Outfall Works. Here the guinea-pig died after the lapse of some weeks, and on examination presented the usual appearance of tubercle infection. Moreover, sections of the bronchial glands, spleen, and other organs, when appropriately stained, showed the presence of numerous tubercle bacilli.+ So that in this case at least it is not open to doubt that some of the " acid-fast " bacteria were those of the bacillus of tuberculosis. It may be concluded from these experiments that, even if some of the "acid-fast" bacteria collecting in the coke-beds are those of the tubercle bacillus, they have for the most part lost their infective power. Nevertheless, the single positive experiment recorded tends to destroy the belief that none of the bacteria in question are those of tubercle, or that, being tubercle, they have all lost their infective power. That some of the "acid-fast" bacteria should be those of the bacillus of tuberculosis is not * See fig. 6. † See figs. 8, 9, 10, and 11. 6 so remarkable when the source of raw sewage is taken into consideration, and when it is remembered that each fragment of deposit collecting on the coke in the filter-beds probably represents the flow of hundreds of gallons of sewage. The practical bearing of these experiments, apart from the scientific interest attaching to them, would seem largely to depend on whether the effluent is discharged into a stream used for drinking purposes, or otherwise. In conclusion, no further claim is made than this— I—In crude sewage, in bacterial coke-beds, and in the effluent from bacterial-beds, there are certain bacteria which, after being stained with hot carbol-fuchsin, resist decolorisation with 33 per cent. nitric acid. II.—Some of these "acid-fast" bacteria cannot, with certainty, be morphologically distinguished from the tubercle bacillus. III.—In one instance a guinea-pig inoculated with the deposit accumulating on the coke of a bacterial-bed died, and presented, on examination, the appearance of death from tubercle infection, and sections of its organs, when appropriately stained, showed the presence of numerous tubercle bacilli. DESCRIPTION OF MICRO-PHOTOGRAPHS AND DRAWING ACCOMPANYING REPORT. Fig. 1.—Unstained Barking coke deposit. x 85. Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5.—Barking coke deposit; stained for tubercle.* x 1,500. Fig. 6.—Deposit from Crossness crude sewage collected in trough at Crossness; stained for tubercle* x 1,500. Fig. 7.—Drawings from various cover-glass preparations made from Barking and Crossness coke deposits, showing the different shapes and forms of the "acid-fast" bacteria; stained for tubercle* x 1,000. Figs. 8 and 9.—Section of bronchial gland of guinea-pig, dead of tuberculosis; stained for tubercle. x 1,500. Figs. 10 and 11.—Section of spleen of guinea-pig, dead of tuberculosis; stained for tubercle. x 1,500. The micro-photographs were taken by Dr. Albert Norman, and it must be understood that the bacteria shewn in them were red in colour, and presented a similar appearance to those drawn and coloured by Mr. Lapidge (see fig. 7). The original micro-photographs (with the exception of fig. 1) showed a magnification of 1,000, but owing 1 to a misunderstanding the reproductions (figures 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, and 11) show a magnification of 1,500 * Stained in hot carbol-fuchsin, decolourised in 33 per cent. nitric acid, counter-stained with methylene-blue. London County Council. BACTERIAL TREATMENT OF CRUDE SEWAGE. THIRD REPORT by Dr. CLOWES and Dr. HOUSTON. EXPERIMENTAL INTERMITTENT TREATMENT of LONDON CRUDE SEWAGE in the coke-beds at barking and crossness. presented by PROFESSOR FRANK CLOWES, D.Sc. (Lond), F.i.C. (Chief Chemist to the Council), To the Main Drainage Committee of the Council, On 24th May, 1900. (WITH APPENDIX UP TO JULY 28th, 1900.) JAS. TRUSCOTT & SON, PRINTERS, SUFFOLK LANE, CANNON STREET, E.C. [3630 DIVISION 1.—CHEMICAL AND GENERAL by PROFESSOR FRANK CLOWES, D.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C. (Chief Chemist to the Council). CONTENTS. DIVISION I.—CHEMICAL AND GENERAL. I.—Introductory Summary. II.—Experimental Bacterial Treatment of Crude Sewage at the Northern Outfall Works (Barking). 1. Primary and Secondary Treatment in beds of Kentish Ragstone and Coke, 5 feet in depth. 2. Primary and Secondary Treatment in beds of Coke, 10 feet in depth. 3. The Bacterial Treatment of the Sedimented Chemical Effluent in the one-acre Coke-bed, 6 feet in depth. III.—Further Experiments on Crude Sewage—Bacterial Treatment at the Southern Outfall (Crossness). 1. Intermittent Treatment of Crude Sewage by single contact in a Coke- bed, 13 feet in depth. 2. Experiment on the Bacterial Treatment of Rapidly Sedimented Crude Sewage. 3. Appended Report on the 13-foot Coke-bed. Feeding with Sedimented Sewage, and increased number of fillings per twenty-four hours. January 20th to July 28th, 1900. 4. Liquid capacity of a Coke-bed, as it is affected by the size of the Coke fragments. IV.—Tabulation of the Results of the Chemical Examination of the Bacterially-treated Crude Sewage and Effluents. 1. Barking results. 2. Crossness results. division i—chemical and general. I.—INTRODUCTORY SUMMARY. Early in 1898 a First Report was printed by the Council on the bacteriological examination, by Dr. Houston, of London crude sewage as it arrived at the Outfalls at Barking and Crossness. This was followed by a Second Report, giving the results obtained by the chemical and bacteriological examination of the crude sewage and of the effluent from the coke-beds at Crossness. A Supplementary Report on the deposit found upon the coke of the coke-beds was issued in October, 1899. The present Report gives a similar statement of the results obtained in the experimental bacterial treatment which has been carried out at the Northern Outfall (Barking) and of the experimental treatment carried out at the Southern Outfall (Crossness) since the issue of the last Report. , The superintendence of the chemical work has rested in the hands of Mr. E. Brooke Pike, the chemist at the Northern Outfall, and of Mr. J. W. H. Biggs, the chemist at the Southern Outfall, and the successful carrying out of the processes has been due to the careful work of these gentlemen and to the co-operation of Messrs. H. Stokoe and E. J. Beal, superintendents at the Outfalls. The bacteriological work has been in the hands of Dr. Houston, who makes a separate statement of his results in Division II. of this Report. The process employed at both Outfalls has been that of "intermittent contact" with frequent aeration of the coke surfaces. The acre coke-bed at the Northern Outfall has received an effluent resulting from sewage which has been mixed with solutions of lime and iron sulphate and has then been subjected to sedimentation. The smaller coke-beds have received sewage which has not been mixed with chemicals, and which has, as a rule, not been freed from its suspended solid matter by sedimentation. Since the cellulose substances in the suspended solid matter of the sewage are only dealt with slowly by the bacteria in the coke-bed, they tend to accumulate on the coke and to diminish the sewage capacity of the bed; they also tend to diminish the extent of purification from the dissolved organic matters of the sewage. Hence the acre bed, which receives the effluent from chemically treated and sedimented sewage, has yielded better results than the smaller experimental beds. A very rough process of sedimentation of the sewage, without the use of chemicals, was effected at the Southern Outfall by allowing the crude sewage to flow through a large tank on its way to the coke-bed. This sedimentation considerably retarded the choking of the coke-beds. Last Christmas an experiment was made (see page 15) on the whole of the South London sewage by allowing it to flow at a comparatively rapid pace through one of the large settling channels at the Outfall Works. In this way the larger portion of the solid suspended matter of the sewage was deposited; a portion of the effluent from this sedimentation process was treated in a small bacterial coke-tank and was found to undergo the usual amount of purification, and to furnish an almost clear and entirely inoffensivp and nonputrescible effluent. No reduction in the capacity of the coke-bed occurred during the period of experiment. From this experiment it may be inferred that simple rapid sedimentation of the crude sewage on the large scale, followed by intermittent bacterial coke treatment will furnish an effluent suitable for the lower river, together with a sludge deposit which could be dealt with in the usual way. It seems reasonable that the experimental treatment of the sewage by rough screening, followed by rapid sedimentation without the previous introduction of chemicals, might now be attempted on a larger scale, and that by this means an effluent of much greater purity than that at present discharged might be sent into the river. 6 It will be seen that the general result of experience with the various coke-beds has been that they increase in efficiency as the duration of their service increases, and that some considerable period of service is necessary before they exert their maximum amount of purification of the sewage. Dr. Houston summarises on pp. 41 to 53 the previous Reports issued by the Council, and gives on pp. 54 to 78 details of the bacteriological work which he has carried out since the issue of those Reports. As regards the general bacteriological aspect of the treatment of London sewage, Dr. Houston gives a statement of the conclusions at which he has arrived after two years study of the problem on behalf of the Council (pp. 70 to 71). It will be seen that Dr. Houston concurs in the advisability of adopting the bacterial method of treatment of London sewage in place of the chemical treatment, and maintains that under the conditions existing in the. lower river and at the Outfalls, this system of treatment would furnish a more satisfactory result. Rut he states that although the effluent from the bacterial beds would not lead to nuisance in the river, it would be by no means a satisfactory liquid to introduce into a part of the river which was used for drinking purposes. 7 II.—EXPERIMENTAL BACTERIAL TREATMENT OF CRUDE SEWAGE AT THE NORTHERN OUTFALL WORKS (BARKING). I.—PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TREATMENT IN BEDS OF KENTISH RAGSTONE AND COKE, 5 FEET IN DEPTH. For the purpose of these experiments four galvanised iron tanks, 4 feet square by 6 feet in depth were erected on some waste land at the liming station and were filled with material to a depth of 5 feet, and were so arranged that the effluent from the two primary tanks should drain completely into the two corresponding secondary tanks. The crude sewage supplied to the beds was obtained from a large pipe conveying sewage to the overhead lime tank, and was raised by means of a portable auxiliary pump. This pump was stopped for a few days periodically for cleaning, and on these occasions the bacteria beds could not be filled. On the 21st of July, 1898, it was suggested that in series I. the first tank should contain a coarse bed of large coke and should discharge its effluent into a fine bed of small coke. Series II. should consist of a coarse bed of large pieces of Kentish ragstone, and should discharge its effluent into a fine bed of the same material. It seemed desirable to experiment with the Kentish ragstone, on account of its great durability and its acid-neutralising power. It seemed probable that the calcium carbonate in the ragstone would furnish a base for the neutralisation of the nitric acid formed by the bacterial action. The material employed in the two coarse primary beds of coke and ragstone was of such a size that the pieces would pass a 4-inch mesh and be rejected by a ½-inch mesh. The material in the two fine beds was of such a size that it would pass a ½-inch mesh and be rejected by a 1/16th-inch mesh. The procedure was as follows— The two coarse beds were filled with crude sewage simultaneously and as quickly as possible to a level with the top of the solid material; the beds were allowed to remain full for two hours, and were then drained into the fine beds. These remained full for two hours, and were then drained off. During the outflow of the effluent from each bed it was sampled every few minutes. These samples were mixed, and the average liquid thus obtained was subjected to analysis. The crude sewage with which the primary beds were filled was sampled and examined in a similar manner. The beds were first filled with crude sewage on the 22nd of September, 1898, and their capacity was ascertained a week later by the careful measurement of the effluent while they were being emptied. On the 29th September the capacity of the coarse beds was as follows— Description of bed. Capacity of each bed in gallons. Percentage of whole volume of bed. Corresponding capacity per acre of bed. Ragstone 200 40.0 544,500 Coke 250 50.0 680,625 The beds received one filling daily until January 11th, 1899, and then two fillings daily until the experiments were stopped. Before starting the two daily fillings the capacity of the beds was ascertained to be as follows— Description of bed. Capacity of each bed in gallons. Percentage of whole volume of bed. Corresponding capacity per acre of bed. Ragstone 183 36.6 498,217 Coke 195 39.0 530,887 Two daily fillings would represent a million gallons per acre per day. On January 20th, 1899, an attempt was made to estimate the free oxygen in solution in the effluents from the four beds, and the following results were obtained — Ragstone, coarse bed nil. Coke ,, nil. Ragstone, fine bed 18.0 per cent. Coke ,, 19.1 „ Complete saturation with oxygen was taken as 100. The effluent obtained from the primary beds did not show as high a purification as had been expected; it is probable that the large size of the material had the effect of presenting an insufficient surface of contact with the sewage; the putrescible matter in the sewage was not therefore thoroughly dealt with by the bacteria. On March 9th, 1899, the capacity of the beds was ascertained to be as follows— Description of bed. Capacity of each bed in gallons. Percentage of whole volume of bed. Corresponding capacity per acre of bed. Ragstone 174 34.8 473,715 Coke 168 33.6 457,380 8 Table A (page 9) shows the varying capacities of these beds, and proves that the cokebeds became choked more quickly than the ragstone-beds. During the first four months after starting the primary coke-bed it choked at the rate of 3 6 gallons per week, or 0.73 per cent. of the total capacity of the tank, and during the next two months the rate of choking was 3.4 gallons per week, or 0.68 per cent. of the total capacity of the tank. The ragstone-bed during the six months choked regularly at the rate of 11 gallons per week, or 0.22 per cent. of the total capacity of the tank. Early in April, 1899, it was considered that the beds had reached their maximum power for purifying the sewage. They were then being filled twice a day, and were dealing with the sewage at the following rates—Ragstone, 947,430 gallons per acre per day; coke, 914,760 gallons per acre per day, and the average percentage purification effected during that month was— Description of bed. Percentage purification, as measured by oxygen absorbed from permanganate. Percentage purification, as measured by albuminoid ammonia. Ragstone, primary, coarse bed 17.5 32.6 Coke „ „ 16.5 21.3 Ragstone, secondary, fine bed 48.8 64.4 Coke „ „ 60.9 62.4 The amount of nitrification produced had fallen very low in the case of all the beds. Abnormal amounts of nitrate were found in the first effluent from the ragstone fine bed after the bed had rested at Easter, from 29th March until 5th April, and it appeared probable that nitrates had been formed in the bed during the rest and had then been washed out by the first filling with sewage. A similar result was not found in any of the other beds. The series of experiments with these beds terminated on the 15th April, 1899, after a period of 29 weeks' working. The average percentage purification effected during the last week was as follows— Description of bed. Percentage purification, as measured by oxygen absorbed from permanganate. Percentage purification, as measured by albuminoid ammonia. Ragstone, coarso bed 21.3 43.2 Coke „ 18.8 29.7 Ragstone, fine bed 50.7 66.5 Coke „ 58.5 68.6 The average percentage purification during the continuance of the experiments as measured by the oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours was as follows— Ragstone coarse bed 20.6 Coke „ 22.5 Ragstone fine bed 49.1 Coke „ 63.2 The two coarse beds were thus shown to be doing very unsatisfactory work. It was hoped that an improved effect would be produced if a reduction were made in the size of the material in the bed. That this expectation was justified will be seen by the fact that the results obtained in the next series of experiments, when the primary beds were composed of coke fragments onehalf to two inches in diameter, showed an average purification of 43.8 per cent. With regard to the secondary treatment of the primary effluent with fine material, the results furnished by the ragstone did not at all come up to expectations, and were far less satisfactory than those obtained with the coke. The amount of nitrification produced by this bed was, however, much greater than that produced in the corresponding coke-bed. it has recently been shown that the presence of nitrates in an effluent may prevent the putrifaction of a certain amount of organic substances from occurring in another effluent with which the nitrateeffluent has been mixed; hence the nitrifying power of the ragstone beds is not without importance. The beds were filled once a day from.22nd September, 1898, to 9th January, 1899, both inclusive. The filling was, however, not carried out on Sundays or on Christmas holidays, and occasionally one or two days were missed when the boiler was undergoing cleaning. In all, filling was carried on on 83 days out of the 110. During this period the ragstone-beds dealt with a total of 16,800 gallons, which was equivalent to 415,800 gallons per acre per day, including all resting periods; while the coke-beds dealt with one-fourth more than this quantity. From 11th January, 1899, to 15th April, 1899, when the experiment terminated, the beds were filled twice daily on 73 days out of the total of 95. During this period the ragstone-beds dealt with a total of 20,976 gallons, which is equivalent to 601,128 gallons per acre per day, while the coke-beds dealt with a total of 21,864 gallons, equivalent to 626,576 gallons per acre per day, all resting periods included. The total volume of sewage dealt with over the whole period of the experiment was therefore— Ragstone beds 37,776 gallons. Coke beds 42.864 „ 9 Expressed in terms of an acre these quantities would represent, on the days the beds were actually at work during the first period of the experiment with one filling per day, the following volumes— Itagstone 551,060 gallons per acre per day. Coke 688,825 „ „ „ and during the second period of the experiment, with two fillings per day— Ragstone 782,290 gallons per acre per day. Coke 815,407 „ „ „ The detailed results obtained by the chemical examination of the sewage and of the effluents are tabulated on pp. 17 to 19. The average purification, as measured by the oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours, during the whole continuance of the experiment was as follows— Description of bed. Oxygen absorbed from permanganate. Percentage purification. Ragstone, coarse bed 3.015 20.6 Coke „ 2.944 22.5 Ragstone, fine bed 1.933 49.l Coke „ 1.396 63.2 Crude sewage, for comparison 3.797 The average purification effected by one daily filling was— Description of bed. Oxygen absorbed. Percentage purification. Ragstone, coarse bed 3.003 20.2 Coke „ 2.923 22.3 Ragstone, fine bed 2.002 46.8 Coke „ 1.323 64.9 Crude sewage, for comparison 3.764 The average purification effected during two fillings per day was— Description of bed. Oxygen absorbed. Percentage purification. Ragstone, coarse bed 3.028 21.0 Coke „ 2.969 22.6 Ragstone, fine bed 1.855 51.6 Coke „ 1.478 61.5 Crude sewage, for comparison 3.834 It will thus be seen that coke gives better results than ragstone in the removal of organic matters in solution; the results are slightly better on the primary treatment, and considerably better on the secondary treatment. It will also be observed that, with the exception of the fine coke-bed, which showed a slight decline, two fillings a day gave a rather better result than was obtained with one filling per day, showing that although the purifying power of the beds, owing probably to the large size of the material, was in itself low and unsatisfactory, still the beds were not being overworked. It points to the conclusion that from 20 to 23 per cent. purification was all that could be obtained by a one-contact treatment of the unsedimented crude sewage dealt with in a bed composed of material of so large a size that it would pass a 4-inch mesh and be rejected by a ½-inch mesh. Effect of the Effluents on Fish life—The effluents from the primary beds killed gold and silver fish in a few hours, but those from the secondary beds sustained fish life as readily as fresh tap-water does. It should be stated that the raw sewage which was supplied to the beds was of the heaviest kind. It was drawn from a level about a foot from the bottom of the sewer, and passed through a ^-inch screen to the beds without any previous sedimentation. Table A.—Variation in Percentage Capacity of the Primary Beds. Ragstone 40 Already called " original capacity." Coke 50 Ragstone 36.6 After an interval of 15 weeks. Coke 39 Ragstone 34.8 After a further interval of 8 weeks. Coke 33.6 [2] 10 The "original capacity" here shown was taken about 7 days after the experiments had been started; it is probably below the total capacity, since it was taken while the beds were being emptied, and the drainings of the beds were therefore not included. No doubt a more trustworthy method of estimating capacity consists in filling the bed after it has drained for a definite time, which should be the same in all processes of taking capacities. It might be well that a standard "drainage period" should be recognised generally, since the wetness of the bed-material must affect the so-called capacity considerably. Thus a bed which had been draining for one hour only would require less liquid to fill it than one which had been draining for ten hours. In the case of the one-acre bed at Barking it is known that the effluent will continue to drain away for several days. 2.—PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TREATMENT IN BEDS OF COKE 10 FEET IN DEPTH. For the purpose of these experiments iron super-structures 4 feet in height were bolted to the existing tanks, and the joints were caulked and made watertight. Thus the depth of the tanks was increased to 10 feet. The tanks were then filled to a depth of 9 feet 9 inches with coke, and were worked in two series as follows— Series A.— (1.) A primary coarse bed. (A.) (2.) A secondary coarse bed. (A 1.) Series B.— (1.) A primary coarse bed. (B.) (2.) A secondary fine bed. (B 1.) The three coarse beds were composed of coke of such a size that it would pass a 2-inch mesh and be rejected by a ½-inch mesh. The fine bed was composed of coke of a size which would pass a ½-inch and be rejected by a 1/16-inch mesh. In this instance the coke which had been in use in the previous experiments, and was thus in good bacterial condition, was mixed with two-fifths of its bulk of new material in forming the deeper bed. The arrangement of the tanks allowed the effluent from the primary beds to drain completely into their respective secondary beds. The sewage supplied to the beds was obtained from the same source as during the previous experiments, and was thus of the strongest nature, and contained sand and other suspended mineral and vegetable matters which should not be allowed to reach the bed, and which a short period of sedimentation would, in a very great measure, remove It speaks well for the beds that they have been able to cope so satisfactorily with the heavy work which was thrown upon them. In series B the depth of the primary coarse bed was reduced to 9 feet 6 inches, in order that its liquid contents should not overflow when it passed into the secondary fine bed, whose capacity was somewhat smaller, owing to its being made of finer material. The procedure was precisely similar to that adopted in the previous experiment. The two primary beds were filled simultaneously, were allowed to rest full for two hours; they were then drained into the secondary beds, and the effluent was allowed to remain for a further period of two hours in contact with the coke. The crude sewage and each of the effluents were separately sampled and subjected to examination. Percentage Capacities of the Beds—The beds were charged by means of a fixed syphon made of one-inch pipe from an overhead water-tank, which was kept constantly full." The volume delivered by this syphon per minute was ascertained, and the capacity was then determined bv the length of time required for fillineg each bed. The following figures indicate the capacity of the various beds expressed as percentages of the total tank volume. 1899. Primary coarse bed A. Secondary coarse bed A 1. Primary coarse bed B. Secondary fine bed B 1. 29th May—dry coke 68.7 61.7 70.3 53.1 20th September 41.9 56.8 33.3 48.1 27th October 32.3 54.9 32.7 46.9 6th December 31.8 53.1 27.6 48.1 4th January, 1900 26.8 50.6 24.7 47.0 7th February 21.8 50.6 21.2 44.4 The progressive decrease in the capacity of the beds shows that they were choking. This cannot be wondered at, considering that the very worst of the sewage was being dealt with, and that sand and other solid matter was being admitted to the beds. Latterly, trouble had been experienced in filling the primary beds, owing to the accumulated mass of undissolved matters on the upper part of the beds. The beds, however, were doing very satisfactory purifying work, and were removing from 40 to 50 per cent. of the dissolved putrescible matters. It was noticed that after seven months' work the coarse bed B had sunk to the extent of 6 inches. On 20th February, 1900, 9 inches of new coke, similar to that originally used, was placed on the top of this bed, and the depth of the bed was thus brought up to 9 feet 9 inches, as in the case of the other three tanks, the capacity of the bed having fallen sufficiently to prevent its contents from overflowing the secondary fine bed. 11 The decrease in the capacity of the beds was as follows— Periods of working each bed. Total loss in capacity in gallons. Decrease in capacity per week Stated in gallons. Stated in percentage of original capacity. Coarse bed A (primary) — September 20 to October 27, 1899 (5 weeks) 84 16.8 1.92 October 27 to December 6, 1899 (6 weeks) 20 3.3 0.17 December 6 to January 4, 1900 (4 weeks) 44 11.0 1.12 January 4 to February 7, 1900 (5 weeks) 48 9.6 1.00 Average loss per week* 9.8 1.00 Coarse bed B (primary)— September 20 to October 27, 1899 5 1.0 0.12 October 27 to December 6, 1899 49 8.2 0.85 December 6 to January 4, 1900 38 9.5 0.72 January 4 to February 7, 1900 33 6.6 0.70 Average loss per week* 6.3 0.60 Coarse bed A 1 (secondary) — September 20 to October 27, 1899 18 3.6 0.38 October 27 to December 6, 1899 19 3.2 0.30 December 6 to January 4, 1900 24 6.0 0.62 January 4 to February 7, 1900 nil nil nil Average loss per week* 3.2 0.31 Fine bed B 1 (secondary)— September 20 to October 27, 1899 12 2.4 0.24 October 27 to December 6, 1899 12 (Increase in capacity) 20 (Increase) 0.20 (Increase) December 6 to January 4, 1900 11 2.7 0.27 January 4 to February 7, 1900 26 5.2 0.52 Average loss per week* 1.9 0.19 Although the apparent average loss of capacity was much greater in coarse bed A than in coarse bed B (both primary), the actual capacity of B was slightly smaller than that of A, being 21 2 per cent., as against 21.8 per cent. in A. This is accounted for by the fact that a much greater decrease in capacity occurred in bed B before the 20th September than in bed A after the 20th September. Work was commenced on Tuesday, 4th July, 1899, the beds receiving one filling per day up to 15th July, when it was thought advisable to fill the beds only three times in the week. From 21st September the beds received one filling a day, and from 11th December onward two fillings a day. The purification as measured by the amount of oxygen absorbed from permanganate, effected up to the end of the year 1899 is stated in the following table, in which the numbers in the first column represent the average percentage purification effected during the period when +he beds were filled three times a week, the second column the period of one filling a day, the third column the period of two fillings a day, and the last column the average percentage purification effected by each bed from the commencement of the experiment until 31st December, 1899. Description of bed. Three fillings a week. Six fillings a week. Twelve fillings a week. Average. Primary coarse bed A 43.9 45.3 45.0 43.9 Secondary coarse bed A 1 62.3 63.6 61.1 62.5 Primary coarse bed B 43.5 45.3 43.9 43.8 Secondary fine bed B 1 79.l 76.1 67.6 76.2 A further improvement is observable in the efficiency of the beds since December 31st last up to the date of writing (10th February, 1900), the average percentage purification effected during that period having been as follows— Primary coarse bed A 46.4 Secondary coarse bed A 1 64.2 Primary coarse bed B 47.3 Secondary fine bed B 1 71.0 * This average is calculated from the total loss of capacity which took place during the 20 weeks of experiment. 12 Relative Temperatures of the Atmosphere and of the Sewage and Effluents. In Table 2 (page 19) the detailed temperature readings of the atmosphere and the effluents daring December, 1899, are given. From a general consideration of the averages of these readings it appears that when the atmosphere was at a temperature of 38.5° Fahr. the sewage flowed into the primary beds at a temperature of 53° Fahr.; and that after it had remained in the primary beds for two hours it flowed into the secondary beds at a temperature of 46° from bed A and of 44'5° from bed B, the air temperature at that time being 38'0°. After the sewage had remained in the secondary beds for two hours it was drawn off, and showed a temperature of 44° from bed Al, and 42.5° from bed Bl, the air temperature at the time being 37.5°. It will be observed that the average temperature of the outside air fell during the whole process 1° Fahr., and that the sewage fell 7° while it remained for two hours in the primary bed A, and a further 2° while it remained another two hours in the secondary bed A 1, or 9 degrees out of a possible 15.5 degrees fall during the whole process. In series B the sewage fell in temperature 8.5° after two hours' rest in the primary bed and a further 2° after another two hours in the secondary bed, or 10.5 degrees out of a possible fall of 15.5 degrees during the whole process. In considering this question of temperatures the following facts must be borne in mind— (1) that the beds were small in area; (2) that their position was exposed, that they stood in metal tanks supported entirely above the ground level, and that each tank was widely separated from the others; and (3) that since the tanks were constructed of thin galvanised iron, their exteriors readily lost beat by radiation as well as by contact with the cold air. The somewhat lower temperatures found in series B are explained by the fact that the latter is somewhat more exposed than series A, which stands between series B and a wooden wind-screen. In another series of readings which are given in Table 3 (page 20) the air temperature fell 2.5° Fahr. during the process of treatment of the sewage—from 43.5° to 41°; and the temperature of the sewage fell in both series of beds (A and B) 4.5° in its passage through the primary beds, and 1 degree more in passing through the secondary beds—a total fall of 5'5° out of a possible 9.5°. In series A the temperature of the beds themselves was taken about four hours after they had been emptied, and the average temperature of the primary bed was found to be equal to that of the sewage which had flowed into the bed, viz., 50.5° Fahr., while the outside air stood at 42°. The average temperature of the interior of the secondary bed was 48°, or 2° higher than that of the effluent from the primary bed with which it had been filled, and 3° above that of the effluent when it was drawn off four hours previous to the test, the outside air standing at 41° Fahr. These details may be summarised as follows—The temperature of the liquid, while it was standing in the primary bed, fell 4.5 Fahr., but after the liquid had been drawn off, the bed recovered from this loss of temperature in four hours; this recovery could evidently only be effected by some internal action which was attended with the production of heat, and is probably due to the action of the bacteria upon the moist suspended matters contained in the bed. The liquid, in passing through the secondary bed, lost a further degree in temperature, but the bed, after standing empty for four hours, rose in temperature again to the extent of 3° Fahr. Composition of the Air contaired in the Body of the Primary Bed B. Many analyses were made of the air contained in the empty coke-beds. The detailed results are given in Table 4 (pp. 20 and 21). From the 19th October to the end of 1899 the air present in the intertices of the coke-bed, after it had remained empty for the average time of twenty-one hours on several different occasions, contained the following average percentages of oxygen and carbon dioxide— Oxygen 10.3 Carbon dioxide 5.7 Between January 1st and February 23rd, 1900, when the bed had remained empty on many occasions for an average period of five hours, the following average percentages were found in the interstitial air— Oxygen 8.0 Carbon dioxide 5.7 Fresh air contains on an average the following percentages- Oxygen 20.96 Carbon dioxide 0.04 The average proportion of oxygen present in the air at the bottom of the bed, as compared with that present in fresh air therefore was, up to the end of 1899, with the bed standing empty for twenty-one hours, about 50 per cent. From the commencement of the present year until 23rd February, with the bed standing empty for the average period of five hours, the aeration, as measured by the above proportion of oxygen, has been about 38 per cent. This is by no means so satisfactory a condition as could be desired, and is probably due to the fact that the bed had become clogged by the heavy suspended matters of the crude sewage, and that the putrifactive bacteria acting on these matters rapidly absorb oxygen from the air and liberate carbon dioxide and other gases. Suitability of the Effluent to Maintain Fish life.—The effluent from the primary beds was capable of sustaining the life of gold fish apparently indefinitely. Less hardy fish, such as roach dace, and perch, became sickly after living in the effluent for a week or two. It should be remarked, however, that the fish were in a somewhat sickly condition before they were placed in the effluent. 13 Nitrification.—The average amount of nitrification produced by the nitrifying organisms in the various beds up to 31st December, 1899, is indicated by the following numbers— Description of liqnid examined. Weight of oxidised nitrogen present in the sewage and in the effluent in grains per gallon. Nitrous nitrogen. Nitric nitrogen. Crude Sewage 0.0040 0.1602 Effluent from Primary coarse bed A 0.0932 0.4474 ,, ,, ,, B 0.0645 0.3562 ,, Secondary coarse bed A 1 0.0767 0.9279 „ Secondary fine bed B 1 0.0409 1.5861 It will be seen that the sewage arrived at the works containing an average amount of 0.1602 grains per gallon of nitric nitrogen, which shows that it was fairly fresh. It contained, as a rule, no nitrous nitrogen. Comparing the amounts of oxidation of nitrogen produced in the various bed, the amount of nitrous oxidation effected in the primary beds was reduced by 17.7 per cent. in the secondary coarse bed and by 36.6 per cent. in the secondary fine bed. On the other hand the amount of nitric oxidation effected in the primary beds was increased by 107.4 per cent, in the secondary coarse bed and by 345.3 per cent. in the secondary fine bed. 3.—THE BACTERIAL TREATMENT OF THE SEDIMENTED CHEMICAL EFFLUENT IN THE ONE ACRE SIX-FEET COKE-BED. The one-acre coke-bed, as it was originally laid down, consisted of three feet of unsifted pan breeze obtained from the adjacent Beckton Gas Works. In 1898 the depth was increased to 6 feet by placing on the top of the old bed 3 feet of coke, in pieces from half-an-inch to one inch in diameter and sifted free from dust. Its area was really 5,067 square yards instead of 4,840 square yards. The bed was first filled on 29th April, 1898, in order to test the pipes for leakage, and it was observed that the surface of the bed settled down considerably in the central portion. The bed was re-levelled and work was re-commenced on the 12th May, 1898. On the following day the effluent from the bed showed a purification of 81'2 per cent. as compared with the chemical effluent, which was allowed to flow upon this bed. The bed was filled once a day until 2nd July, 1898, from after that date one filling per tide was dealt with: this amounted practically to two fillings a day. The bed had to be worked according to the tide, because high-water mark in the river, into which the effluent was discharged, was above the level of the outfall for the effluent. Quantities of chemical effluent dealt with and capacity of the bed. The bed was filled once a day between 12th May, 1898, and 2nd July, 1898, with the exception of Sundays, when the bed rested empty. During this period the bed was filled 43 times, and dealt with a total volume of 29,986,048 gallons, or an average of 697,350 gallons at each filling. As the total capacity of the space occupied by the bed is 273,618 cubic feet, or 1,710,112 gallons, the bed showed a liquid capacity of 40.8 per cent. of its whole volume. During the period under notice the capacity of the bed, as calculated from the averages of the first and last complete week's work, fell 71,045 gallons, this being equal to a decrease of 4.15 per cent. during the the whole period, or to 0.59 per cent. per week. During the week ending July 9th, 1898, the bed was dealing with sewage at the rate of 1,255,918 gallons a clay for six days in the week, and resting on the seventh. This quantity is approximately equal to that dealt with by the old 3-foot bed when it was at its maximum working capacity and being filled three times a day. As the effluent appeared to drain off very slowly from the bed, the engineer obtained the sanction of the Committee to construct a second outlet in order to hasten the process of emptying this bed. For this purpose the bed was thrown out of work on Friday, 29th July. 1898. The capacity of the bed at this time was 508,250 gallons, or 29.7 per cent. This is a fall of 12.2 per cent. from the average capacity during the week ending May 21st, 1898. The average capacity during this week was 717,503 gallons, and the last filling on the 29th July had shown 508,250 gallons. The purification effected during the period from May 12th to 29th July, 1898, as shown by the oxygen consumed, averaged 79.7 per cent. The regular filling of the bed was commenced again on 8th November, 1898. During the first two weeks after starting, the bed was filled once a day, but the work done was so efficient that tidal fillings were resumed on 21st November, and continued until 11th March, 1899, when the bed became foul and was thrown out of work. During this period (November 8th, 1898, to March 11th. 1899) the bed dealt with 98,743,447 gallons and effected an average purification of 84'3 per cent. At the commencement of this period the capacity of the bed was 39.7 per cent.; at the end of the period it was 29.1 per cent. This is equal to a drop of 10.6 per cent. in seventeen weeks, or 06 per cent. per week. The bed rested empty for eight weeks and was started again on 8th May, 1899. It was filled once a day during the first three days of this week, and rested empty until the Monday following in order to enable the engineer to carry out some experiments relative to the cost of 14 sifting the material composing. the lower three feet of the bed. The bed was then filled once a day until the 30th May, when tidal fillings were again commenced. Between the 8th May and 31st December, 1899, the bed was filled 361 times, and deait with a total of 170,191,973 gallons, or with an average of 471,446 gallons per filling. This gives an average capacity of 27.6 per cent., or 1.5 per cent. lower than 11th March. The actual fall in capacity between the middle of May and the end of December, 1899, was 7.7 per cent. Since the end of the year 1899 the capacity has gradually diminished until it reached, on 3rd March, 1900, 21.8 per cent., and 20.1 per cent. on 21st April. The purification effected during the period extending from the 8th May to 31st December, 1899, averaged 82 per cent., as measured by the removal of the dissolved oxidisable matters from the chemical effluent. The results of these examinations are given in Table 7 pp. 25 to 34. On February 20th a hole was dug to the bottom of the bed after it had been draining for five or six hours, and it was found that liquid remained in the bed filling it to the surface of the old 3-feet bed. The water could be baled out, but the hole filled itself again by the liquid oozing very slowly through its sides from the surrounding parts of the bed. In other words the lower half of the bed remained permanently full of liquid. This was probably due to the consolidation of the unsifted fine pan breeze in the lower part of the bed by the weight of the upper layer of three feet; this upper part being coarse-sifted coke apparently remained open and unconsolidated. The liquid contents of the lower three feet of the bed were accordingly only forced through the drainpipes during the process of emptying by the weight of liquid in the upper half of the bed, and as soon as the contents of the upper three feet reached the lower three feet of the bed they remained there while the bed was resting in air until they were forced out after the next filling. It appeared therefore that only the upper three feet of the bed was aerated by direct contact with the air when the effluent flowed out, and that the lower three feet of the bed must have obtained its oxygen from the liquid which had been in contact with the upper half of the bed. This condition of things probably explains the low nitrification which has always been found in effluents from this bed, as compared with those derived from other experimental beds in use on the works. It explains also the low liquid capacity of this bed. In all probability the liquid capacity was nearly double that which was shown by measuring the volume of the effluent discharged. The capacity measured was indeed that of the upper half of the bed only, the lower half remaining entirely filled with liquid. III—REPORT AS TO FURTHER EXPERIMENTS ON THE BACTERIAL TREATMENT OF CRUDE SEWAGE AT THE SOUTHERN OUTFALL (CROSSNESS). 1.—INTERMITTENT TREATMENT OF CRUDE SEWAGE BY SINGLE CONTACT IN A COKE-BED 13 FEET IN DEPTH. A brick-lined tank, 22 feet 6 inches long by 10 feet 8 inches wide, and having a superficial area equal to 2/363of an acre, had already been filled with coke to a depth of 6 feet for the experiments which were described in the previous Report on the Crossness Experiments. The coke fragments were about the size of walnuts. This 6-foot bed had been acting as a secondary bed for about eight months, and had treated the effluent from a coke-bed fed with crude sewage for that period. On February 27th, 1899, this bed was first filled with crude sewage, and its depth was increased by adding new coke fragments of similar size to the old, until on March 8th the bed was 12 feet deep. On April 11th another foot of coke was added giving the bed a total depth of 13 feet. This increase in depth was made in order to ascertain whether an increase in the depth of the bed in any way detracted from its efficiency. It will be evident that the capacity of a bed per unit of superficial area is increased in proportion to this increase in its depth. In charging this bed crude sewage was pumped by a special engine and pump direct from the suction culvert of the main pumping engines of the Outfall, and was distributed from a trough over the surface of the bed. The liquid sank readily into the body of the coke-bed. As soon as the bed was filled and the liquid appeared at the surface of the bed, the pumping was stopped. The sewage was then allowed to remain in contact with the coke for three hours, after which it was allowed to flow away slowly from the bottom of the bed. The filling took from 20 to 25 minutes, and the draining away of the effluent from an hour to an hour and a half. From February 27th to March 25th inclusive, the bed was filled once daily with sewage, and after March 27th it was generally filled twice daily. The bed was charged once only on Saturdays and remained empty on Sundays and on holidays. The other rests were due either to accidents occurring to the driving belt or to the pump, or to the necessity arising for making alterations in the arrangements or for making capacity determinations of the bed. The coke which was used in this bed occupied, while it was new, 49 per cent. of the whole volume of the bed, and the interstitial air or liquid occupied 51 per cent. This liquid space was reduced by June 8th to about 34 per cent., and by October 10th to about 28 per cent. This loss in capacity was equal to about 63 gallons decrease of liquid capacity per week, and threatened speedily to put an end to the work of the bed. In order to prevent further loss of liquid capacity the coarser suspended matter of the crude sewage was allowed to subside before the sewage flowed upon the bed. With this object a large wooden tank was placed upon the top of the coke-bed, and the crude sewage was pumped into this and was allowed to overflow upon the bed. 15 The solid matter left behind in the tank consisted mainly of particles of sand, woody fibre, straw, paper and hair. It was generally of the same character as the matter which had been found adhering to the coke and which had been choking the bed. The result of this rough settlement was that by January 12th, 1900, the liquid capacity had increased from 28 per cent. to about 33 per cent. The purification effected by this bed, as judged by the removal of dissolved organic matter was practically equal to that obtained by the 4-foot bed. There is no reason why a deep bed should not give as good results as a shallow bed, provided that it is as well aerated during the periods when it is empty. Experiments have been already reported which proved that even the bottom of the 13-foot bed was well supplied with oxygen. The effluent from this deep coke-bed has been usually slightly turbid; it possessed only a faint earthy smell, and it was capable of supporting fish life. During the period under notice, from February 27th, 1899, to December 22nd, 1899, the bed had been filled 338 times. Taking the average sewage capacity of the bed as being equal to 6,000 gallons, the quantity of sewage dealt with per acre per day would be, for one filling, 1,089,000 gallons; for two fillings, 2,178,000 gallons; and for three fillings, 3,267,000 gallons. Experiments are now in progress which will prove whether this bed is capable of treating sewage satisfactorily at the rate of four fillings a day, the sewage supplied to it having undergone a short process of preliminary sedimentation. 2.—EXPERIMENT ON THE BACTERIAL TREATMENT OF RAPIDLY SEDIMENTED CRUDE SEWAGE. For three weeks at the end of last year the crude sewage arriving at the Southern Outfall was not mixed with chemicals, and was allowed to flow through one of the large settling channels at an average rate of 7.4 feet per minute, the usual rate of flow of chemically-treated sewage being about 1.5 feet per minute. A portion of this sedimented sewage was then treated in a small coke-bed in the intermittent manner already described, the bed being filled thrice daily. Details of the results obtained are given on page 38. An average percentage purification from dissolved oxidisable matter was obtained, amounting to 53 per cent., calculated on the sedimented sewage ; this purification amounted to 58.7 per cent., if calculated on the crudge sewage. The capacity of the bed was not reduced during the period of treatment. 3.—APPENDED REPORT ON THE 13-FOOT COKE BED. FEEDING WITH SEDIMENTED SEWAGE, AND INCREASED NUMBER OF FILLINGS PER TWENTY-FOUR HOURS. JANUARY 15tii TO JULY 28th, 1900. Continuing the history of this bed from the end of the last statement, the bed was not filled from December 22nd, 1899, to January 15th, 1900, owing to the experiments with the whole of the Crossness sewage being carried on at the same time. From January 15 th to April 5th, 1900, the bed was filled intermittently in the way already described, the sewage overflowing from a large wooden tank placed on the bed so as to allow the heavier and coarser suspended solids to settle out. The number of fillings per day is shown in the table which follows this statement. On April 5th the bed had been filled with crude sewage three times daily for nearly 7 weeks. The coke was then seriously clogged upon the surface, and although the degree of purification effected was fully maintained, the bed had to be stopped in order to give time for the collection of matter in the upper part to become removed by bacterial action. The bed was allowed to stand in air from April 5th to May 2nd, 1900. In the meantime, arrangements had been made to subject the sewage to a short, but more efficient, process of sedimentation in a brick tank of approximately 8,000 gallons capacity before it passed into the bed. The settled liquid was drawn off from near the surface of this tank, and as soon as the coke-bed had been filled the residual liquid remained at rest in the settling tank until it was again filled up with the crude sewage. Probably most of the liquid which passed into the coke-bed was therefore settled stale sewage, which was displaced by the incoming sewage. Some anaerobic (septic) bacterial action undoubtedly took place in this settling tank, and there was a considerable evolution of inflammable gas, but the extent by which the sludge was reduced in amount by this action could not be ascertained. The conditions of working would not allow of sufficiently accurate measurements of the incoming sludge being made, and an intermittent septic process of the above kind could hardly be suitable for dealing with the sewage of London. Since May 2nd, the coke-bed has been filled intermittently from the brick settling tank three and four times daily; no clogging of the upper parts of the coke has been noticed, and the liquid sinks readily into the coke-bed as soon as it is allowed to pass upon the surface. The liquid capacity of the coke-bed was taken at long intervals, and has been found to be as follows— January 12th—6,000 gallons. June 16th—6,000 gallons. October 8th—6,290 gallons (calculated from a determination of the capacity of half the bed). The sludge deposited during eight weeks in the settling tank contained on the average 35 per cent, of organic matter. 16 Number of Fillings Per Week of the 13-foot Coke Bed, and Weekly Average Purification. Week ending No. of fillings per week. Average percentage purification as measured by the oxygen absorbed from permanganate in lour hours. By the total putrescible matter. By the dissolved putrescible matter. 1900. January 20th 6 50.6 48.8 27th 6 58.0 62.0 February 3rd 6 56.0 58.0 10th 6 60.0 58.0 17th 2 51.0 45.0 24th 16 48.0 48.0 March 3rd 15 45.5 43.5 „ 10th 15 53.0 51.0 „ 17th 14 56.0 54.0 „ 24th 16 52.6 52.1 „ 31st 13 51.1 50.5 April 5th 9 49.0 51.0 „ 5th to May 2nd, rest for choking, alterations, &c - May 5th 6 46.0 54.0 „ 12th 11 44.0 51.0 „ 19th 11 56.0 57.0 „ 26th 16 56.0 58.0 June 2nd 15 61.0 62.0 „ 9th 17 53.0 52.0 „ 16th 17 53.6 52.1 „ 23rd 20 58.0 54.0 „ 30th 21 55.0 47.0 July 7th 21 53.0 53.0 „ 14th 20 61.0 58.0 „ 21st 9 68.0 61.0 „ 28th 11 65.0 60.0 Total 319 Average 544 53.6 4.—LIQUID CAPACITY OF A COKE-BED, AS IT IS AFFECTED BY THE SIZE OF THE COKE FRAGMENTS. The question has been raised as to the actual liquid capacity of one and the same tank according as it is filled with coke fragments of different sizes. It has been maintained that the liquid capacity of the interstices between the coke-fragments does not vary when the tank is successively filled with fragments of different dimensions, provided that in the case of each filling with coke the fragments are approximately of similar dimensions. In order to test this a tank with a total capacity of 280 gallons was filled with small fragments of coke which passed a half-inch mesh, and subsequently with fragments about the size of the fist. In both cases the coke was allowed to soak in water until it was saturated, as was shown by the liquid capacity of the coke-tank becoming uniform when it was tested at intervals of several days. The period of soaking required was about four days. The liquid capacity was distinctly greater when the tank was filled with the large coke fragments than when it was filled with the small fragments. The relative capacities were as follows— Capacity of small-coke bed 135 gallons. .. large-coke bed 150 gallons. Further experiments seemed to show that this difference in capacity increased as the particles departed more widely from the spherical form. With truly spherical particles of uniform size, the difference of capacity arising from difference in the size of the particles entirely disappeared. 17 IV—TABULATION OF THE RESULTS OF THE CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE BACTERIALLY-TREATED CRUDE SEWAGE AND EFFLUENTS. I.—BARKING RESULTS. Table 1.—Chemical Results of the Estimation of the Amount of Oxygen Absorbed from Permanganate by the Sewage and by the Effluents from the Beds of Ragstone and Coke. Date. Number of times filled daily. Number of grains of oxygen absorbed from permanganate in 4 hours * by one gallon of— Crude sewage. Effluent from the Ragstone series. Effluent from the Coke series. Primary coarse bed. Secondary fine bed. Primary coarse bed. Secondary fine bed. 1898. 1.471 SeDt. 22 Once 4.412 4.759 5.000 4.59 23 ” lost 4.510 4.412 4.608 0.784 26 ” 2.059 3.039 2.353 2.358 0.882 27 ” 2.330 2.718 2.524 2.718 0.777 28 ” 1.942 2.039 1.748 1.845 0.582 29 ” 2.600 2.500 1.900 2.700 0.600 30 ” 3.300 3.200 2.500 3.200 0.900 Oct. 3 ” 1.900 2.500 1.900 1.800 0.600 4 ” 2.200 2.300 1.800 1.900 0.600 5 ” 2.300 2.800 1.900 2.100 0.500 6 ” 1.800 1.800 1.400 1.400 0.600 7 ” 1.800 1.800 1.400 1.400 0.700 8 ” 2.200 2.300 2.000 1.700 0.700 10 ” 1.500 1.500 1.800 1.700 0.900 11 ” 3.000 2.800 1.900 2.600 1.100 12 ” 2.000 1.900 1.600 1.800 0.800 13 ” 1.700 1.600 1.300 1.500 0.700 14 ” 1.800 1.700 1.200 1.700 0.700 15 ” 2.700 2.600 2.000 2.500 1.100 17 ” 1.400 1.500 1.300 1.400 0.800 18 ” 2.200 1.800 1.600 1.800 0.900 19 ” 1.881 1.980 1.881 1.881 1.089 21 ” 3.267 3.168 1.782 3.168 1.188 22 ” 2.178 1.683 1.386 1.980 0.792 24 ” 2.673 2.376 1.584 2.178 0.891 25 ” 2.475 1.881 1.584 2.079 1.089 26 ” 3.069 2.376 1.485 2.178 0.792 27 ” 3.564 2.970 1.881 2.772 1.188 28 ” 4.059 3.356 2.277 3.069 1.584 29 ” 2.475 2.277 1.584 2.178 0.990 Nov. 2 ” 4.158 3.168 2.277 3.366 1.386 3 ” 4.059 3.366 1.782 3.069 1.287 4 ” 3.564 2.772 1.485 2.574 1.584 5 ” 4.275 3.366 2.277 3.267 1.287 7 ” 3.366 2.970 1.782 3.267 1.386 8 ” 3.960 3.168 1.881 3.168 1.287 9 ” 3.663 3.267 1.980 3069 1.881 10 ” 3.564 2.970 1.980 2.871 1.584 11 ” 3.663 3.162 1.782 3.069 1.386 12 ” 4.356 3.465 2.376 3.366 2.079 14 ” 3.069 2.871 1.881 2.673 1.287 15 ” 4.554 3.069 1.980 2.673 1.485 16 ” 4.158 2.970 1.386 2.673 1.683 17 ” 4.158 3.168 1.782 3.267 1.368 18 ” 4.554 3.069 1.881 3.069 1.980 19 ” 4.653 3.564 1.980 3.366 2.079 21 ” 4.000 3.500 2.000 3.300 1.400 22 ” 4.000 3.400 1.800 3.600 1.400 23 ” 4.800 3.600 2.000 3.500 1.600 24 ” 4.700 3.900 2.300 3.900 1.700 25 ” 4.800 3.500 2.100 4.000 1.500 26 ” 4.400 3.000 1.500 3.200 1.100 28 ” 4.100 3.000 1.900 3.000 1.500 29 ” 4.300 3.400 1.800 3.900 1.400 30 ” 6.000 3.500 2.500 3.600 1.900 Dec. 1 ” 4.300 3.400 2.800 3.500 2.100 2 ” 5.500 3.800 2.300 4.100 1.900 [3] 18 TABLE I.—(continued). Date. Number of times filled daily. Number of grains of oxygen absorbed from permanganate in 4 hours by one gallon of— Crude sewage. Effluent from the Ragstone series. Effluent from the Coke series. Primary coarse bed. Secondary fine bed. Primary coarse bed. Secondaryfine bed. 1898. Dec. 3 Once 5.400 3.200 2.500 3.500 1.900 5 ” 5.400 3.500 2.300 3.800 2.000 6 ” 4.800 3.500 1.800 3.800 1.500 7 ” 4.900 3.500 2.400 3.600 2.200 8 ” 3.000 2.000 1.500 2.500 1.100 9 ” 4.200 3.000 1.700 2.700 1.300 10 ” 4.400 3.200 2.000 2.700 lost. 14 ” 5.200 3.300 2.300 3.900 1.600 15 ” 5.000 3.100 2.200 2.700 1.600 16 ” 5.100 3.900 2.600 3.800 1.900 17 ” 5.000 3.100 1.700 3.000 1.600 20 ” 4.500 3.800 2.200 3.800 1.600 21 ” 5.100 4.000 2.200 3.500 1.500 22 ” 4.200 3.700 2.300 2.100 1.600 23 ” 4.600 3.200 2.400 3.100 1.900 24 ” 5.600 4.100 2.100 4.000 1.600 29 ” 4.400 3.000 1.800 3.200 1.300 30 ” 4.700 3.200 2.000 3.700 1.300 31 ” 5.500 3.500 2.300 3.500 1.400 1899. Jan. 2 ” 3.600 2.600 1.300 2.100 1.700 3 ” 4.802 3.627 2.353 3.725 1.569 4 ” 5.098 3.922 2.157 3.922 1.471 5 ” 4.800 3.300 2.000 3.300 1.600 6 ” 4.700 3.300 1.700 3.000 1.400 7 ” 5.100 3.200 1.800 3.500 1.600 9 ” 4.100 3.400 2.100 2.800 1.400 11 Twice 4.200 3.700 2.000 4.100 2.100 12 ” 3.100 2.700 1.700 3.000 1.200 13 ” 3.300 2.600 1.800 2.800 1.000 14 ” 2.500 2.000 1.500 2.000 1.000 16 ” 2.900 2.200 1.000 2.400 1.000 17 ” 3.000 2.400 1.400 2.500 1.900 18 ” 3.500 3.000 1.700 3.000 1.100 19 ” 3.100 2.800 1.700 2.500 1.200 20 ” 4.200 3.400 2.200 2.900 1.100 21 ” 2.600 2.300 1.600 2.200 1.300 25 ” 4.158 3.366 1.980 3.168 1.485 26 ” 4.100 3.200 2.000 2.800 1.500 27 ” 3.700 3.200 1.700 3.000 1.500 28 ” 3.500 2.700 1.700 1.600 1.300 30 ” 3.500 3.100 1.900 2.700 1.400 31 ” 4.400 3.300 1.800 3.300 1.400 Feb. 1 ” 4.200 3.400 2.200 3.300 1.600 2 ” 4.000 2.700 2.600 3.300 1.500 3 ” 4.000 3.400 1.900 3.500 1.400 4 ” 3.000 2.700 1.800 2.500 1.400 6 ” 3.400 2.800 1.600 2.600 2.100 7 ” 2.900 2.300 1.500 2.200 1.300 8 ” 3.100 2.500 1.500 2.400 1.200 9 ” 3.100 2.600 1.500 2.300 1.200 10 ” 3.300 2.400 1.400 2.100 1.300 11 ” 3.500 3.300 1.600 3.100 1.400 13 ” 2.700 2.000 1.700 2.200 1.300 14 ” 3.000 2.600 1.800 2.300 1.500 15 ” 4.000 3.000 1.900 3.100 1.500 16 ” 3.200 2.700 1.700 2.700 1.500 17 ” 3.700 2.900 1.600 2.900 1.300 18 ” 3.300 2.500 1.700 2.600 1.300 20 ” 3.400 3.000 1.700 3.100 1.300 21 ” 3.900 3.000 1.700 3.100 1.500 22 ” 4.400 3.000 2.000 3.000 1.500 23 ” 4.400 3.500 1.900 3.300 1.600 24 ” 4.700 3.600 2.100 3.700 1.700 25 ” 3.700 3.400 2.000 3.000 1.700 27 ” 3.700 3.000 1.700 3.000 1.500 28 ” 4.600 3.100 1.900 3.100 1.500 Mar. 1 ” 4.300 2.900 1.800 2.800 1.300 4 ” 3.500 2.600 1.900 2.900 1.500 19 TABLE I.—(continued). Date. Number of times filled daily. Number of grains of oxygen absorbed from permanganate in 4 hours by one gallon of— Crude sewage. Effluent from the Ragstone series. Effluent from the Coke series. Primary coarse bed. Secondary fine bed. Primary coarse bed. Secondaryfine bed. 1898. Mar. 6 Twice 4.000 2.900 1.800 3.000 1.500 7 ” 4.300 3.100 1.900 2.900 1.400 8 ” 4.500 3.300 2.000 3.100 1.500 9 ” 5.100 3.800 2.200 3.900 1.700 10 ” 4.700 3.400 2.100 3.300 1.900 11 ” 3.800 3.000 1.900 3.100 1.600 13 ” 4.216 3.725 1.863 3.627 1.863 14 ” 4.412 3.627 2.157 3.529 1.863 15 ” 4.216 3.137 2.255 2.941 1.863 16 ” 4.706 3.431 2.255 3.235 1.667 17 ” 4.314 3.235 2.059 3.333 1.863 18 ” 3.725 2.950 2.059 2.745 1.373 20 ” 4.314 3.333 1.863 3.333 1.569 21 ” 4.623 3.585 1.981 3.396 1.698 22 ” 4.623 3.208 2.264 3.113 1.981 23 ” 4.057 2.925 1.604 2.736 1.415 24 ” 4.434 2.925 1.887 3.019 1.604 25 ” 4.057 3.396 2.170 3.775 1.604 27 ” 4.623 3.679 2.075 3.775 1.604 28 ” 4.528 3.491 2.170 2.830 1.698 29 ” 5.189 3.775 1.698 3.302 1.887 Apl. 5 ” 5.094 4.717 2.736 5.000 1.792 6 ” 4.057 3.208 2.547 3.208 1.509 7 ” 3.868 3.396 2.075 3.019 1.321 8 ” 4.151 3.585 1.792 3.585 1.604 10 ” 2.925 2.264 1.415 2.547 1.321 11 ” 3.208 2.359 1.604 2.736 1.321 12 ” 4.057 3.019 1.887 2.736 1.509 13 ” 3.775 3.019 1.698 2.925 1.415 14 ” 2.736 2.170 1.415 2.359 1.321 15 ” 2.830 2.547 1.604 2.547 1.226 Ave rages 3.797 3.015 1.933 2.944 1.396 Table 2.—Temperature Readings of the Atmosphere and of the Effluents from the Coke-beds of Series A. and B. Temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit. Date. Air. Crude sewage. Air. Effluent from primary bed A. Effluent from primary bed B. Air. Effluent from secondary bed A 1. Effluent from secondary bed B 1. 1899. 38.0 Dec. 11 33.0 53.0 30.5 48.0 43.0 29.0 40.0 12 34.0 54.5 34.0 42.0 40.5 32.0 40.0 39.5 12 33.5 55.0 36.0 47.0 42.0 36.0 43.0 40.0 13 32.0 54.0 32.0 42.0 40.0 30.0 42.5 41.0 14 32.0 54.5 36.5 45.5 42.0 34.0 42.5 39.5 15 35.0 54.0 35.0 44.0 42.0 30.5 43.5 39.0 15 32.0 55.0 30.5 45.0 45.5 32.0 42.5 40.5 16 32.0 55.0 32.0 41.0 40.0 30.0 42.5 41.0 16 44.0 52.0 35.0 43.0 41.5 35.0 43.0 41.5 18 43.0 54.0 40.0 44.0 44.0 41.0 42.0 41.0 19 42.0 53.0 41.0 45.0 45.0 35.0 44.0 44.0 20 40.0 53.0 40.0 47.0 46.0 39.0 45.0 44.0 21 41.0 54.0 39.0 47.0 46.0 40.0 44.0 45.0 27 34.5 53.5 33.0 44.5 41.5 34.5 41.5 40.0 28 30.0 53.0 34.0 44.0 42.0 36.0 39.0 38.0 28 43.0 52.0 43.5 46.0 45.5 46.0 43.5 43.0 29 47.0 50.0 47.0 50.0 49.0 51.0 46.0 46.0 29 52.5 48.0 50.0 51.0 51.5 49.0 51.0 51.0 30 46.0 53.0 46.5 52.0 52.0 47.5 50.0 50.0 30 45.0 53.0 44.0 51.0 51.0 45.0 51.0 50.5 Averages 38.5 53.0 38.0 46.0 44.5 37.5 44.0 42.5 20 Table 3.—Temperature Readings of the Atmosphere, of the Crude Sewage, of the Effluents from the Coke-beds and of the Interior of the Coke-beds of Series A. and B. Temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit. Date. Air. Crude sewage. Air. Primary beds. Air. Secondary beds. Interior of bed A. Effluent from bed A. Effluent from bed B. Interior of bed A 1. Effluent from bed A 1. Effluent from bed B 1. 1900 Jan. 22 51.0 49.0 52.5 53.5 57.0 57.0 53.5 50.0 53.5 54.5 23 53.5 52.5 52.0 54.5 52.5 52.0 52.5 52.0 52.5 52.0 24 52.0 53.5 50.0 59.0 52.5 53.5 50.0 59.0 52.0 52.0 24 57.0 53.5 52.5 57.0 54.5 53.5 47.5 53.5 52.0 50.0 25 53.5 48.0 53.5 53.5 50.0 51.0 44.5 53.5 50.0 48.0 25 57.0 52.0 49.0 57.0 52.0 52.0 50.0 55.0 52.0 52.5 26 49.0 53.5 48.0 52.5 52.0 51.0 48.0 59.0 52.0 50.0 26 52.0 53.5 52.5 53.5 53.5 52.5 49.0 55.5 51.0 51.0 27 53.5 53.5 52.5 54.5 51.0 51.0 39.0 52.5 50.0 50.0 29 41.0 50.0 48.0 50.0 52.0 51.0 48.0 50.0 52.0 52.0 30 46.5 51.0 48.0 46.5 47.5 46.5 37.5 46.5 43.0 43.0 30 41.0 51.0 30.0 50.0 44.5 44.5 39.0 41.0 43.0 43.0 31 40.0 48.0 43.0 41.0 44.5 43.0 48.0 42.0 47.0 46.5 31 43.0 52.0 43.0 53.5 44.5 44.5 42.0 53.5 44.0 44.5 Feb. 1 44.5 51.0 37.5 48.0 40.0 41.0 34.0 37.5 41.0 41.0 1 37.5 51.0 37.5 52.0 42.0 42.0 38.0 50.0 43.0 43.0 2 34.0 50.0 35.5 48.0 44.5 46.0 34.0 39.0 41.0 41.0 2 35.5 50.0 36.5 51.0 41.0 41.0 34.5 50.0 42.0 42.0 5 46.5 50.0 44.5 48.0 40.0 41.0 37.5 48.0 40.0 39.0 6 37.5 48.0 35.5 50.0 41.0 41.0 35.5 48.0 39.0 40.0 6 40.0 48.0 36.5 47.0 44.5 44.5 34.0 41.0 40.0 40.0 8 30.0 50.0 28.5 47.0 39.0 39.0 25.0 43.0 37.5 39.0 8 36.5 48.0 34.0 48.0 40.0 40.0 35.5 37.5 37.5 36.5 9 36.5 48.0 34.5 48.0 41.0 39.0 34.5 36.5 39.0 37.5 10 26.5 50.0 26.5 47.0 39.0 39.0 37.5 45.5 39.0 38.0 10 37.5 48.0 36.5 48.0 41.0 39.0 35.5 44.5 41.0 39.0 Averages 43.5 50.5 42.0 50.5 46.0 46.0 41.0 48.0 450 450 Table 4.—Percentage Composition of the Air at the Bottom of the Primary Coke-bed B. Date. Number of hours bed stood empty. Percentage of carbon dioxide. Percentage of oxygen. Date. Number of hours bed stood empty. Percentage of carbon dioxide. Percentage of oxygen. 1899. 1899. Oct. 19 22 1.6 17.4 Nov. 17 17 8.0 10.5 20 20 3.0 15.6 20 68 2.0 16.4 23 19 4.2 14.8 21 17 4.0 15.0 24 19 8.8 4.0 22 17 6.0 12.4 25 19 11.4 1.4 23 19 8.0 12.1 28 43 8.0 6.4 24 19 7.6 12.2 31 19 4.0 9.0 28 19 8.6 6.0 Nov. 1 19 5.0 7.4 29 19 7.6 6.4 2 20 4.0 10.0 Dec. 1 19 8.8 3.2 3 20 3.6 9.8 5 19 7.5 6.1 4 38 3.6 10.2 7 19 8.8 3.0 6 19 7.0 8.2 8 19 4.0 13.0 7 19 8.6 4.2 12 19 5.8 11.8 9 19 4.0 16.0 13 19 5.0 11.8 10 16½ 5.0 13.6 14 19 7.2 10.2 13 67 1.2 18.2 19 4 6.0 5.0 14 17 3.0 15.0 20 4 7.0 5.0 15 17 3.6 15.2 21 4 8.0 4.2 16 17 4.0 15.6 22 4 2.4 13.6 Averages 21 5.7 103 In pure atmospheric air the average percentage of carbon dioxide is 0.04, and of oxygen 20.96. 21 Table 4.—(continued). Date. Number of hours bed stood empty. Percentage of carbon dioxide. Percentage of oxygen. Date. Number of hours bed stood empty. Percentage of carbon dioxide. Percentage of oxygen. 1900. 1900. Jan. 2 4 7.8 5.8 Jan. 23 4 5.4 9.4 3 4 9.9 3.9 25 4 6.4 6.4 4 4 1.8 17.2 26 4 5.2 10.8 9 4 7.0 9.8 30 4 4.6 5.4 10 4 6.9 7.7 Feb. 1 4 3.6 10.4 11 4 7.8 3.6 2 4 3.4 9.8 12 4 5.6 8.4 6 4 5.4 8.2 16 4 6.0 4.9 8 4 7.0 8.0 17 4 4.7 7.9 9 4 4.0 9.8 18 4 2.8 11.2 22 4 6.4 8.0 19 24 6.6 3.4 23 4 7.8 5.6 Averages 5 5.7 8.0 In pure atmospheric air the average percentage of carbon dioxide is 0*04, and of oxygen 2096. Table 5.—Amount of Nitrification produced in the Coke Beds of Series A and B. Date. Nitrogen as Nitrite in Nitrogen as Nitrate in Crude sewage. Coke-beds of Series A. Coke-beds of Series B. Crude sewage. Coke-beds of Series A. Coke-beds of Series B. Primary Coarse Bed. Secondary Coarse Bed. Primary Coarse Bed. Secondary Pine Bed. Primary Coarse Bed. Secondary Coarse Bed. Primary Coarse Bed. Secondary Fine Bed. 1899. July 4 Nil Nil Nil Nil 0.1400 0.1306 0.1325 0.1306 0.1625 0.3387 5 ” ” ” ” 0.1750 0.0618 0.0850 0.0556 0.0368 1.1900 6 ” ” ” ” 0.2450 0.0837 0.2281 0.0975 0.2206 0.8625 7 ” ” ” ” 0.2450 0.1162 0.1012 0.0587 0.0381 0.9818 8 Slight trace ” ” ” 0.2800 0.1437 0.0662 0.1075 0.1056 0.2587 11 Nil ” ” ” 0.2520 0.0612 0.0506 0.0719 0.1106 1.7305 12 ” ” ” ” 0.1610 0.1925 0.0762 0.2125 0.1350 1.1915 13 ” ” ” ” 0.0280 0.1306 0.1987 0.1468 0.1481 1.9176 14 ” ” ” ” 0.0308 0.1356 0.1662 0.1218 0.1450 2.2761 15 ” ” ” ” 0.1050 0.0837 0.1444 0.2687 0.1906 1.6294 17 ” ” ” ” 0.0140 0.1112 0.2232 0.0319 0.0969 2.0956 19 ” ” 0.1190 ” 0.0250 0.0275 0.0294 Nil 0.1181 1.9387 21 ” 0.0280 Nil ” 0.0210 Trace 0.1032 Trace 0.0362 1.6415 24 ” 0.1050 0.4480 ” 0.0393 0.1207 0.1970 0.1980 0.1206 1.2217 26 ” 0.0140 0.3150 ” 0.0336 0.1530 0.1240 0.1670 0.1789 1.2284 28 ” Nil 0.2100 ” 0.0420 0.1181 0.4385 0.4087 0.1856 1.1950 31 ” 0.0182 0.2100 ” 0.0532 0.1201 0.4528 0.4781 0.1800 0.0668 Aug. 2 ” 00210 0.2100 ” 0.0420 0.0856 0.0979 0.3762 0.1775 1.2640 4 ” Nil 0.2100 ” 0.0140 0.0468 0.0701 0.3881 0.0726 1.4300 9 ” 0.3780 0.0420 0.2100 0.0210 0.0357 0.5166 1.1650 0.0910 1.7470 11 ” 0.2800 0.0560 Nil 0.0350 0.2410 0.2001 0.9195 0.4770 2.3400 14 ” 0.2800 0.0560 ” 0.0350 0.1493 0.2600 0.8460 0.1756 1.9540 16 ” 0.2800 0.0700 ” 0.0420 0.2947 0.0395 1.7570 0.2365 1.8700 18 ” 0.1400 0.0600 ” 0.0280 0.2370 0.4627 1.6370 0.2425 1.6690 21 ” 0.0560 0.0420 ” 0.0280 0.1815 0.1822 1.1660 0.1815 1.3160 23 ” 0.0140 0.1400 ” 0.0140 0.2426 0.0548 1.8806 0.2415 1.8400 25 ” 0.0140 0.1400 ” 0.0350 0.3566 0.3413 1.0840 0.3623 1.8650 28 ” 0.1786 0.0582 0.2100 0.0210 0.0618 0.9054 1.1828 1.1050 2.4650 30 ” 0.3500 0.1050 0.2800 Nil 0.4818 1.0970 1.5950 0.2000 1.8120 Sept. 1 ” 0.2800 0.0350 0.0252 ” 0.1703 0.5665 0.1986 2.0760 0.8441 4 ” 0.2100 0.0420 0.0210 ” 0.1156 1.7780 2.4400 0.4748 1.6160 6 ” 0.2800 0.1050 Nil 0.0280 0.1818 0.9230 1.5230 0.1794 1.7150 8 ” 0.0210 0.1400 ” 0.0420 0.3578 0.4000 1.8620 0.3586 1.8350 11 ” 0.2800 0.1400 0.2100 0.0210 0.0981 0.1968 0.7500 0.2760 0.5852 13 ” 0.2800 0.0280 0.2100 0.0140 0.0903 0.4498 1.9425 0.1105 2.3566 15 ” 0.0840 0.0490 0.0140 0.0350 0.1325 0.5956 1.2853 0.3375 2.6590 18 ” 0.0252 0.0840 0.0420 0.0280 0.1161 0.5621 1.3990 1.1670 1.9730 21 ” 0.2100 0.0280 0.0210 0.0280 0.2336 0.3773 0.7260 0.0560 0.7420 22 ” 0.2800 0.0560 0.3500 0.0420 0.1580 0.7003 1.0400 0.6510 1.6660 23 ” 0.0140 0.2100 0.0140 0.0128 0.1903 0.2214 0.6418 0.3952 1.5672 25 ” 0.0210 0.2100 0.0182 0.0280 0.2351 0.6871 0.7911 0.7524 2.0630 26 ” 0.0140 0.0420 0.0140 0.0210 0.1480 0.2977 0.9201 0.5899 1.4400 27 ” 0.0210 0.1400 0.0210 0.0280 0.3623 0.6965 0.9431 0.4631 1.6526 28 ” 0.0210 0.0280 0.0182 0.0252 0.2545 1.0738 1.2991 0.6953 0.8778 29 ” 0.0210 0.0420 0.0210 0.0182 0.2953 1.1630 1.2600 0.5673 1.4048 22 Table 5.—(continued). Date. Nitrogen as Nitrite in Nitrogen as Nitrate in Crude sewage. Coke.beds of Series A. Coke.beds of Series B. Crude sewage. Coke.beds of Series A. Coke.beds of Series B. Primary Coarse Bed. Secondary Coarse Bed. Primary Coarse Bed Secondary Fine Bed. Primary Coarse Bed. Secondary Coarse Bed. Primary Coarse Bed Secondary Fine Bed. 1899. Oct. 2 Nil. 0.2100 0.0560 0.1820 0.0182 0.2431 1.0343 1.5156 1.0412 0.6947 3 ” 0.1680 0.0420 0.5600 0.0140 0.3503 1.9750 2.6961 0.9251 2.5524 4 ” 0.1400 0.1120 0.2100 0.0210 0.3499 2.2200 2.3530 0.3931 2.0846 5 ” 0.1400 0.0210 0.1260 0.0210 0.2053 1.3352 1.0798 2.3817 1.4421 6 ” 0.1400 0.0210 0.0820 Nil 0.4218 2.1900 2.2350 2.1775 2.2500 7 ” 0.0210 0.2800 0.0210 0.0280 0.3691 0.7216 0.9792 0.4841 1.5577 13 ” 0.1400 0.0210 0.2100 0.0140 0.2441 1.4467 2.1194 0.8775 1.1940 14 ” 0.0182 0.7000 Nil 0.0210 0.2317 1.8474 1.7881 0.8274 1.0501 16 ” 0.0420 0.0280 0.0350 Nil 0.2978 1.2051 1.8431 1.3311 1.5583 17 ” 0.0630 0.0280 0.1400 0.0140 0.3559 1.1960 0.9313 1.1892 0.9594 18 ” 0.0210 0.0420 0.0560 0.0140 0.1810 0.2205 0.7604 0.2456 1.7178 19 ” 0.1120 0.0280 0.0840 0.0140 0.2046 0.2530 1.0307 0.1188 3.0485 20 ” 0.1400 0.0210 0.1120 0.0182 0.2270 0.1693 0.9627 0.4228 2.8098 21 ” 0.0140 0.1400 0.0140 0.0350 0.2263 0.2289 0.5935 0.2289 1.8477 23 ” 0.0210 0.0420 0.0140 0.0210 0.2399 0.4105 0.7126 0.2955 1.6935 24 ” 0.0210 0.0280 0.0210 0.0280 0.2421 0.3438 0.8054 0.2760 2.1342 25 ” 0.0140 0.0700 0.0210 0.0350 0.0847 0.2280 0.8907 0.2282 2.3750 26 ” 0.1820 0.0280 0.0182 0.0420 0.1070 0.2196 0.9457 0.2834 1.6542 28 ” 0.0140 0.0560 0.0140 0.0350 0.0799 0.1653 0.3533 0.2135 0.9708 30 ” 0.0350 0.0140 0.0280 0.0140 0.0540 0.5816 1.2142 0.0773 1.5827 31 ” 0.1120 0.0140 0.0210 Nil 0.0607 0.0093 0.4858 0.1661 1.6225 Not. 1 ” 0.0280 0.0182 0.0560 0.0140 0.3073 1.0840 1.4178 1.1350 1.9972 2 ” 0.0140 0.0420 0.0140 0.0140 0.1791 0.2824 1.4140 0.1627 1.5766 3 ” 0.1820 0.0700 0.0140 Nil 0.1199 0.1513 0.8537 0.2941 2.1005 4 ” 0.0210 0.0280 0.0840 0.0140 0.0623 0.4766 1.2141 0.1023 2.2298 6 0.280 0.1400 0.0210 0.1120 Nil 0.4670 1.1637 1.9533 0.7517 2.2690 7 Nil 0.1400 0.0280 0.1400 0.0140 0.0593 0.6595 1.3960 0.4718 2.0730 8 ” 0.1400 0.0280 0.1400 Nil 0.0585 0.5250 1.2161 0.2343 1.7410 9 ” 0.2100 0.0560 0.1400 0.0182 0.2452 0.1681 0.9638 0.1661 1.6943 10 ” 0.2100 0.0420 0.2800 Nil 0.1215 0.5209 1.7887 0.3290 1.7000 13 ” 0.1400 0.0280 0.1400 0.0210 0.0603 0.5974 1.4260 0.5656 2.3280 14 ” 0.2100 0.0420 0.2100 0.0280 0.1245 0.1531 1.6210 0.4025 1.8100 15 ” 0.2100 0.0350 0.1400 0.0210 0.1837 0.1610 1.2037 0.3513 2.4100 16 ” 0.2100 0.0350 0.2100 0.0210 0.2240 0.0140 0.6250 0.1666 1.9890 17 ” 0.2100 0.0420 0.1400 0.0560 0.0549 0.1575 0.9620 0.0458 1.5620 18 ” 0.0560 0.1400 0.0280 0.0560 Trace 0.2165 0.7337 0.1570 1.6520 20 ” 0.2800 0.0420 0.2800 0.0280 0.0596 0.1738 1.3190 0.1469 2.8720 21 ” 0.2100 0.0420 0.2100 0.0210 0.1212 0.5291 1.2992 0.0338 2.6660 22 ” 0.0420 0.0560 0.0840 0.0420 0.0579 0.1036 1.0973 0.0616 2.3630 23 ” 0.0700 0.0420 0.0280 0.1400 0.1813 0.5311 1.1513 0.2456 1.9016 24 ” 0.0560 0.0420 0.0420 0.1400 0.1829 0.2520 0.8115 0.2545 1.6421 25 0.0140 0.0560 0.1680 0.0280 0.0600 0.0448 0.1792 0.2734 0.1754 1.1978 27 Nil 0.0210 0.0420 0.0140 0.0420 0.0605 0.0700 0.8155 0.0485 0.9348 28 0.1190 0.0490 0.0252 0.0560 0.1168 0.0066 1.3603 0.1023 0.0721 29 0.0140 0.0280 0.0378 0.0182 0.0378 0.0472 0.1132 1.3684 0.1043 0.2153 30 0.0140 0.1820 0.0280 0.0322 0.0322 0.0466 Lost 1.3570 0.1184 1.5303 Dec. 1 Nil 0.0700 0.0840 0.0140 0.0350 0.1203 0.7335 0.6685 0.1090 1.9817 2 ” 0.0280 0.2100 0.0210 0.0700 0.1202 0.2118 0.6193 0.1601 1.6980 4 0.0280 0.2100 0.0280 0.0280 0.0280 0.2138 0.2211 1.4407 0.2188 2.0555 5 Nil 0.2100 00840 0.0210 0.0420 Nil 0.2878 1.1028 0.1604 2.4463 7 ” 0.0210 0.0280 0.0140 0.0210 0.1198 0.1588 0.4693 0.2930 0.8491 8 ” 0.0280 0.0210 0.0210 0.0140 0.2420 0.5795 1.2983 0.2210 1.6186 9 ” 0.0420 0.1400 0.3500 0.0210 Trace 0.1980 0.7150 0.0116 1.5865 11 ” 0.0140 0.0210 0.0420 0.0420 0.2379 0.2965 1.2190 0.3304 1.5128 12 ” 0.0280 0.1400 0.0420 0.0210 0.3688 0.7131 0.7201 0.5714 1.8435 13 ” 0.0280 0.0560 0.0280 0.0140 0.1758 0.1478 0.5560 0.1930 1.3376 14 ” 0.1400 0.0280 0.0280 0.0210 0.2450 0.2192 0.2312 0.0912 1.2240 15 ” 0.0210 0.0560 0.0210 0.0210 0.0622 0.1255 0.3023 0.2913 0.8119 16 ” 0.0210 0.2100 0.0210 0.1400 0.2833 0.3916 0.3881 0.2258 0.5645 18 ” 0.1400 0.0280 0.1400 0.0420 0.1196 0.2203 0.5663 0.0390 1.3278 19 ” 0.1050 0.1050 0.0420 0.0420 0.0595 0.4968 0.6138 0.1998 1.2833 20 ” 0.0420 0.2100 0.0280 0.0420 0.0606 0.1401 0.1228 0.2123 1.1573 21 0.0420 0.0280 0.1400 0.0280 0.0420 0.0173 0.1523 0.1627 0.3317 0.2553 22 Nil 0.0140 0.0280 0.0280 Nil 0.1001 0.1868 0.3335 0.2113 1.0656 27 0.0560 0.0840 0.0210 0.0560 0.0210 0.0612 0.0360 0.6992 0.0475 1.2004 28 Nil 0.0560 0.0210 0.0140 0.0140 0.0571 0.1224 0.4473 0.2210 1.2403 29 ” 0.0210 0.0420 0.0140 0.0280 0.1129 0.3213 0.5370 0.2719 1.2833 30 ” 0.0140 0.1050 0.0140 0.0420 0.0611 0.1266 0.1303 0.1019 1.2325 Averages 0.004 0.0932 0.0767 0.0645 0.0409 0.1602 0.4474 0.9279 0.3562 1.5861 23 It is worthy of note that after the beds had rested on Sundays an increased amount of nitrate was found in the Monday effluent. There can be little doubt that this additional nitrate was produced during the Sunday's rest, and was washed by the first effluent after the period of rest. This result was specially marked in the case of the secondary beds. Table 6.—Number of times the Coke.beds of Series A and B were filled each day, and the amount of Oxygen absorbed by the Crude Sewage and by the corresponding Coke.bed Effluents. Date, 1899. Number of times filled daily. Number of grains of oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours by one gallon of Crude sewage. Effluent from series A. Effluent from series B. Primary coarse bed. Secondary coarse bed. Primary coarse bed. Secondary fine bed. July 4th Once 4712 2.971 1.827 2.692 0.769 ” 5th ” 4.615 3.269 1.827 2.596 0.865 ” 6th ” 3.846 2.885 1.731 2.500 0.865 ” 7th ” 4.135 2.500 1.731 2;692 0.769 ” 8th ” 3.942 2.404 1.635 2;500 0.672 ” 11th ” 3.750 3.077 2.115 2.212 0.769 ” 12th ” 4.327 2.971 1.731 3.269 0.500 ” 13th ” 4.327 2.692 1.635 2.971 0.672 ” 14th ” 3.942 2.971 1.731 3.077 0.577 ” 15th ” 4.423 2.596 1.346 2.692 0.672 ” 17th ” 4.190 2.571 1.714 2.762 0.762 ” 19th ” 4.476 2.857 2.857 2.952 1.909 ” 21st ” 3.714 1.619 0.857 1.428 0.857 ” 24th ” 3.908 2.285 1.809 2.476 0.761 ” 26th ” 3.789 1.684 1.684 2;526 0.438 ” 28th ” 4.210 2.315 1.263 2.241 0.438 ” 31st ” 4.742 2.680 1.753 2.887 0.825 August 2nd ” 3.918 2.268 1.649 2.474 0.722 ” 4th ” 4.330 2.680 1.856 2.680 0.825 ” 9th ” 3.196 2.577 1.237 2.577 0.825 ” 11th ” 3.228 2.187 1.237 1.666 0.833 ” 14th ” 4.700 2.800 1.500 2.600 0.700 ” 16th ” 4.100 2.800 1.900 2.800 0.800 ” 18th ” 3.600 2.000 2.300 2.100 0.800 ” 21st ” 4.791 2.400 1.562 2.500 0.937 ” 23rd ” 4.583 2.604 1.354 2.604 1.041 ” 25th ” 4.791 2.500 1.458 2.291 1.145 ” 28th ” 2.688 2.043 1.387 2.150 0.968 ” 30th ” 3.978 2.258 1.387 2.043 0.860 September 1st ” 4.387 2.427 2.142 1.436 1.020 4th ” 4.842 1.474 0.737 2.526 0.947 ” 6th ” 4.687 2.812 1.875 2.708 0.937 ” 8th ” 4.787 1.809 1.596 2.553 0.957 ” 11th ” 4.105 2.842 1.684 2.421 0.947 ” 13th ” 5.263 2.421 1.474 2.526 0.947 ” 15th ” 4.255 2.340 1.489 2.234 0.745 ”18th ” 4.680 2.659 1.170 2.234 0.851 ” 21st ” 4.680 3.085 1.255 2.125 1.170 ” 22nd ” 4.255 1.595 1.276 1.702 0.744 ” 23rd ” 4.042 1.595 1.489 1.489 0.851 ” 25th ” 4.361 2.659 1.808 2.659 0.744 ” 26th ” 4.255 2.453 1.489 2.125 0.957 ” 27th ” 4.680 3.085 1.914 2.659 1.255 ” 28 th ” 4.479 2.708 1.770 2.604 1.250 ” 29th ” 4.583 2.916 1.770 2.812 1.458 October 2nd ” 4.895 3.541 1.979 3.854 0.833 ” 3rd ” 4.631 1.786 1.489 2.812 0.947 ” 4th ” 4.315 2.812 1.894 3.368 1.263 ” 5th ” 4.631 2.659 1.474 2.812 1.157 ” 6th ” 4.631 2.526 1.489 2.000 0.947 ” 7th ” 3.568 2.421 1.894 2.812 0.842 ” 13th ” 4.903 2.500 1.634 3.076 1.153 ” 14th ” 4.903 2.798 2.692 2.980 0.865 ” 16th ” 3173 1.923 1.346 1.538 0.961 ” 17th ” 4.615 2.403 1.826 2.596 0.961 ” 18th ” 4.444 2.500 1.730 2.403 1.153 ” 19th ” 4.653 1.584 0.990 2.277 0.990 24 Table 6.—(continued). Date, 1899. Number of times filled daily. Number of grains of oxygen absorbed from permanganate in 4 hours by one gallon of— Crude sewage. Effluent from series A. Effluent from series B. Primary course bed. Secondary coarse bed. Primary coarse bed. Secondary fine bed. October 20th Once 3.861 2.178 1.287 1.584 0.792 ” 21st ” 4.059 1.881 1.386 2.574 0.990 ” 23rd ” 4.215 2.745 1.764 2.352 0.980 ” 24th ” 4.313 2.549 1.470 2.549 1.078 ” 25th ” 4.411 2.549 1.764 2.451 0.980 ” 26th ” 4.411 2.156 1.078 2.647 0.980 ” 28 th ” 3.235 1.764 1.372 2.254 0.784 ” 30th ” 2.843 1.470 0.892 1.274 0.588 ” 31st ” 4.803 2.352 1.372 2.156 0.882 November 1st ” 4.509 1.961 1.176 2.254 0.882 ” 2nd ” 5.294 2.843 1.764 2.352 0.980 ” 3rd ” 4.313 2.745 1.570 1.961 0.882 ” 4th ” 1.764 1.274 0.882 1.078 0.588 ” 6th ” 2.156 1.176 0.784 1.078 0.686 ” 7th ” 3.431 1.860 1.176 1.764 0.882 ” 8th ” 2.941 1.570 1.372 1.078 0.588 ” 9th ” 4.216 2.254 1.470 2.156 0.980 ” 10th ” 2.843 1.863 1.078 1.667 0.686 ” 13th ” 2.745 1.667 1.078 1.470 0.882 ” 14th ” 4.803 2.745 1.372 2.156 1.078 ” 15th ” 4.000 2.300 1.800 2.100 0.900 ” 16th ” 4.400 2.700 1.300 2.200 1.100 ” 17th ” 4.900 2.600 1.600 2.300 1.000 ” 18th ” 4.100 3.400 1.800 2.500 0.900 ” 20th ” 4.400 2.500 1.900 2.400 0.900 ” 21st ” 4117 2.352 1.568 2.745 0.882 ” 22nd ” 4.607 2.745 1.667 2.549 0.882 ” 23rd ” 4.215 2.254 1.372 2.254 1.274 ” 24th ” 5.000 2.156 2.058 2.549 1.372 ” 25th ” 4.059 2.277 1.386 2.277 1.089 ” 27th ” 4.950 3.366 2.376 3.366 1.584 ” 28th ” 7.100 1.500 1.600 2.500 1.300 ” 29th ” 5.500 3.200 1.900 3.400 1.600 ” 30th ” 4.500 2.200 1.700 2.800 1.200 December 1st ” 4.900 1.600 1.800 2.700 1.400 ” 2nd ” 4.100 2.200 1.700 2.400 1.300 ” 4th ” 5.000 3.000 2.000 2.900 1.200 ” 5th ” 5.100 3.000 1.900 3.100 1.500 ” 7th ” 4.653 2.574 1.683 2.772 1.287 ” 8th ” 5.148 2.178 1.584 2.178 1.386 ” 9th ” 4.300 2.500 1.700 2.300 1.200 ” 11th Twice 4.500 2.400 1.700 1.800 1.300 ” 12th ” 5.100 2.800 2.000 2.500 1.300 ” 13th ” 5.100 2.700 1.800 2.500 1.200 ” 14th ” 4.800 2.500 1.800 2.600 1.300 ” 15th ” 4.100 1.900 1.700 2.800 1.500 ” 16th ” 4.700 3.100 1.600 2.700 1.600 ” 18th ” 4.300 2.100 1.700 2.100 1.400 ” 19th ” 4.300 1.300 1.300 2.200 1.300 ” 20th ” 5.300 2.900 2.000 3.000 1.700 ” 21st ” 3.500 2.800 1.900 2.600 2.700 ” 22nd ” 5.600 2.800 2.100 3.100 1.600 ” 27th ” 4.700 3.300 1.700 2.700 1.600 ” 28th ” 4.500 2.400 1.800 2.400 1.200 ” 29th ” 4.900 2.500 2 000 3.400 1.500 ” 30th ” 3.200 2.200 1.600 2.100 1.000 Averages 4.314 2.422 1.616 2.424 1.027 25 Tables 7.—Particulars of the Treatmknt of Sedimented Chemical Effluent in the One Acre Coke.Bed. Date, 1898. Sewage chemically treated and sedimented as supplied to the coke.bed. Coke.bed effluent. Quantity treated. Gallons. Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. 1898. No record as regards total oxidisable matter. ” No record as regards total oxidisable matter. May 12 818,680 ” 13 743,341 „14 717,669 ” 16 2.871 0.564 748,903 ” 17 4.700 0.844 705,782 ” 18 4.100 0.917 732,699 ” 19 2.500 0.531 702,605 ” 20 2.100 0.469 719,532 ” 2] 2.300 0.469 695,500 ” 23 2.700 0.569 695,500 ” 25 3.000 Nil 0.0029 0.520 0.0280 0.0873 749,000 ” 26 3.300 ” 0.0017 0.630 0.1050 Nil 695,500 ” 27 2.100 ” 00059 0.480 0.0140 0.2166 722,250 ” 28 722,250 ” 31 749,000 Jnne 1 2.600 ” 0.0170 0.480 0.0210 0.0943 722,250 ” 2 2.500 ” 0.0115 0.460 0.0140 0.0780 703,101 ” 3 2.500 ” 0.0173 0.470 0.0182 0.0971 722,250 ” 4 2.200 ” Nil 0.480 0.0210 0.1058 722,250 ” 6 2.800 ” ” 0.470 0.0140 0.1013 728,274 ” 7 3.600 ” 0.0115 0.690 0.0140 0.1186 722,250 ” 8 2.800 ” Nil 0.540 0.0182 0.1086 712,205 ” 9 2.900 ” ” 0.500 0.0210 0.1116 722,250 ” 10 3.000 ” ” 0.471 0.0210 0.0943 722,250 ” 11 2.200 ” ” 0.412 0.0210 0.2096 695,500 ” 13 2.900 ” ” 0.519 0.0140 0.2570 722,250 ” 14 3.800 ” 0.0217 0.577 0.0252 0.2342 678,048 ” 15 3.700 ” 0.0115 0.663 0.0280 0.1450 678,048 ” 16 3.100 ” 0.0173 0.620 0.0322 0.0716 668,750 ” 17 2.400 ” 0.0115 0.490 0.0182 0.0738 668,750 ”18 2.000 ” Nil 0.460 0.0350 0.0976 678,048 ” 20 2.300 ” ” 0.510 0.0420 0.1136 695,500 ” 21 2.500 ” ” 0.578 0.0280 0.1161 668,750 ” 22 2.900 ” 0.0115 0.520 0.0280 0.0758 668,750 ” 23 2.800 ” 0.0404 0.519 0.0210 0.0943 642,000 ” 24 2.600 ” Nil 0.500 0.0182 0.1374 605,553 ”25 1.800 ” ” 0.462 0.0210 0.0712 642,000 ”27 2.500 ” ” 0.481 0.0210 0.0655 668,750 ” 28 2.500 ” ” 0.425 0.0210 0.0655 642,000 ” 29 2.800 ” ” 0.453 0.0182 01893 642,000 ” 30 2.300 ” ” 0.442 0.0210 0.1002 642,000 July 1 2.300 ” ” 0.463 0.0210 0.1231 642,COO ” 2 1.600 ” ” 0.505 0.0378 0.0948 642,000 ” 4 2.200 ” ” 0.432 0.0210 0.0943 652,700 642,000 ” 5 3.000 ” ” 0.545 0.0518 0.0922 647,350 642,000 ” 6 2.800 ” 0.0461 0.596 0.0182 0.0692 642,000 631,300 ” 7 3.100 ” Nil 0.667 0.0140 0.0494 628,658 636,650 ” 8 3.000 ” ” 0.657 0.0148 0.0601 642,000 625,950 ” 9 642,000 502,900 ” 11 3.500 ” 0.0173 0.634 0.0182 0.0798 486,850 466,667 ” 12 3.500 ” Nil 0.683 0.0322 0.1350 540,350 460,287 ” 13 3.600 ” 0.0230 0.677 0.0252 0.1477 632,177 588,500 ” 14 3.400 ” 0.0173 0.635 0.0196 0.0957 599,200 588,500 ” 15 3.200 ” Nil 0.667 0.0210 0.0193 622,800 ” 593,850 [4] 26 Table 7—(continued). Date, 1898. Sewage chemically treated and sedimented as supplied to the coke.bed. Coke.bed effluent. Quantity treated. ns. Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. 1898. July 16 2.200 Nil Nil 0.633 Trace Nil 615,250 604,550 ” 18 1.700 ” ” 0.571 0.0322 00139 615,250 587,330 ” 19 3.000 ” ” 0.663 0.0350 00226 649,640 369,919 ” 20 2.500 ” ” 0.633 0.0238 00742 406,600 620,326 ” 21 2.700 ” ” 0.633 0.0182 0.0740 609,900 596,285 ” 22 2.276 ” ” 0.630 0.0233 0 0511 612,755 571,982 ” 23 2.178 ” ” 0.540 00168 00524 587,642 556,400 ” 25 ” 3.069 ” 0.0173 0.670 0.0238 0.0086 588,500 569,106 ” 26 3.960 ” Nil 0.720 0.0210 00230 561,750 540,671 ” 27 2.475 ” ” 0.680 0.0210 00346 602,710 552,033 ” 28 2.574 ” 0.0115 0.600 0.0168 00230 572,450 535,000 ” 29 3.366 ” Nil 0.570 0.0168 01326 572,450 508,250 Nov. 8 4.950 3.663 Nil 0.0987 1.089 0.649 0.1190 1.8129* 469,101 ” 9 4.950 3.762 ” 0.2006 1.089 0.505 0.1190 0.8697 642,000 ” 10 4.950 3.366 ” 0.1312 0.990 0.567 0.0700 0.7211 561.750 ” 11 7.921 3.010 ” 0.0969 0.693 0.557 0.0560 0.5171 695,500 ” 12 4.950 3.366 ” 0.1444 1.089 0.557 0.0840 0.2729 668,750 ” 14 3.960 3.564 ” 0.0075 0.990 0.569 0.0182 0.7212 722,250 ” 15 4.950 3.960 ” 0.0431 1.089 0.539 0.0182 0.6555 668,750 ” 16 4.950 3.663 ” 0.0937 0.990 0.539 0.0210 0.5952 668,750 ” 17 3.960 3.465 ” 0.1131 0.990 0.577 Trace 0.5562 668,750 ” 18 4.950 3.456 ” 0.0525 0.891 0.547 Trace 0.4025 676,130 ” 19 5.000 3.500 ” 0.2437 1.300 0.629 0.0160 0.2877 668,750 ” 21 5.000 4.000 ” 0.0700 1.200 0.581 0.0140 0.7110 695,500 652,700 ” 22 7.000 5.300 00490 0.0829 1.200 0.619 0.0140 0.8385 625,950 642,003 ” 23 7.000 5.200 Trace 0.1094 0.700 0.619 0.0140 0.4347 636,650 631,300 ” 24 7.000 5.000 Nil 0.0244 1.500 0.707 0.0182 0.3687 597,562 615,250 ” 25 5.000 3.500 00350 Lost 1.200 0.535 0.0180 01937 674,100 636,650 ” 26 3.000 2.400 Nil 0.0375 0.900 0.510 0.0140 0.4754 636,650 631,300 ” 28 5.000 3.900 0.0687 1.000 0.570 0.0238 0.5549 663,400 615,250 ” 29 5.000 3.900 00350 Nil 0.800 0.520 0.0210 0.7065 603,253 609,900 ” 30 6.000 4.000 Nil 0.0237 1.100 0.627 0.0210 0.3396 615,250 Dec. 1 6.000 4.300 ” 0.0806 1.000 0.529 0.0140 0.5672 688,618 ” 2 7.000 5.100 Trace 0.0319 1.100 0.559 0.0182 0.5593 655,228 630,810 ” 3 6.000 3.600 Nil 0.1362 1.300 0.618 0.0350 0.3394 574,927 ” 5 6.000 5.000 ” - 1.300 0.702 0.0210 — 642,000 608,964 ” 6 6.000 5.300 ” 0.1606 1.200 0.635 0.0210 0.6415 642,000 603,252 ” 7 5.000 3.400 01190 0.0841 1.000 0.529 0.0252 0.7494 574,797. 580,488 * This large amount of nitrate, as compared with that found on July 29th, had probably been produced during the period of resting, and was washed out in the first effluent. 27 Table 7—(continued,). Date, 1898. Sewage chemically treated and sedimented as supplied to the coke.bed. Coke.bed effluent. Quantity treated. Gallons. Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. 1898. Dec. 8 5.000 3.500 0.6300 Nil 1.100 0.551 0.0280 0.6420 574,797 557,506 ” 9 4.000 3.800 0.0560 0.0221 0.800 0.551 0.0210 0.4690 605,676 524,300 ” 10 4.000 3.800 Trace 0.0656 0.900 0.622 0.0280 0.3420 588,500 583,150 ” 12 6.000 4.500 0.0737 0.900 0.550 0.0210 0.7502 588,500 540,350 ,, 13 6.000 4.700 0.0140 Nil 1.200 0.640 0.0238 0.3468 540,651 ,, 14 4.000 2.700 0.0490 ” 0.700 0.530 0.0210 0.4040 569,106 552,033 ” 15 5.000 4.300 0.0420 ” 1.100 0.620 0.0238 0.2199 558,724 567,100 ” 16 5.000 4.800 0.0070 0.0199 1.100 0.650 0.0280 0.1507 572,450 597,562 ” 17 4.000 3.700 Nil 0.0806 2.300 0.630 0.0378 0.1759 557,555 557,724 ” 19 6.000 4.700 0.0112 0.1363 1.300 0.690 0.0280 0.3395 572,450 572,450 ” 20 6.000 5.300 0.0210 0.1059 1.200 0.683 0.0238 0.3512 545,700 561,750 ” 21 6.000 5.200 0.0112 0.1063 1.200 0.702 0.0420 0.1967 551,050 551,050 ” 22 7.000 5.100 Trace 0.6375 1.400 0.712 0.0182 0.1462 545,700 545,700 ” 23 6.000 5.400 Nil 0.0394 1.300 0.697 0.0140 0.1522 545,700 567,100 ” 24 3.000 2.900 0.1400 0.3062 1.000 0.545 0.0376 1.1676 524,300 ” 28 588,500 535,000 ” 29 4.000 3.800 0.0700 0.1362 1.100 0.545 0.0182 0.3093 535,000 535,000 ” 30 3.000 2.600 0.0560 0.0802 2.000 0.762 0.0322 0.2228 545,700 535,000 ” 31 6.000 4.100 Nil 0.0231 Lost 0.663 0.0182 0.1143 518,950 1899 Jan. 2 5.880 4.118 0.1400 Nil 1.473 0.577 0.0210 0.5259 569,764 561,750 ” 3 6.860 4.706 0.0070 0.0417 1.276 0.663 0.0210 0.5877 549,416 540,350 ” 4 7.000 4.500 Nil 0.0337 1.400 0.635 0.0420 0.2011 577,505 551,050 ” 5 7.000 4.600 0.1190 Nil 1.400 0.712 0.1050 0.0675 568,114 524,300 ” 6 7.000 4.600 0.0240 1.500 0.683 0.0700 Nil 551,050 540,350 ” 7 6.000 4.200 Nil 0.0344 1.200 0.606 0.0910 0.0959 556,400 556,400 ” 9 10.000 4.800 0.0140 0.1047 1.300 0.400 0.0840 0.0822 588,500 ” 10 6.000 4.300 0.0182 0.0112 1.300 0.680 0.0742 0.1183 561,750 540,350 535,000 ” 11 4.000 2.500 0.1400 Nil 1.300 0.580 0.0350 0.2606 545,700 ” 12 4.000 2.700 0.1050 ” 1.000 0.610 0.0210 0.2190 561,750 563,415 ” 13 3.000 3.200 0.2800 ” 0.900 0.580 0.0560 0.3084 569,106 548,923 ” 14 4.000 2.700 0.1050 ” 1.000 0.560 0.0420 0.5275 552,033 557,724 ” 16 4.000 3.300 0.3500 ” 1.000 0.560 0.0490 0.6667 591,871 572,450 ” 17 4.000 3.600 0.2100 ” 1.000 0.570 0.0420 0.5380 540,350 561,750 ” 18 8.000 5.400 0.1050 ” 1.400 0.750 0.0280 0.5451 540,350 ” 19 6.000 4.100 0.1190 ” 1.200 0.654 0.0420 0.3811 521,224 529,067 ” 20 5.000 4.800 0.0280 ” 1.300 0.635 0.0140 0.2872 537,206 533,137 28 Table 7—(continued). Date, 1898. Sewage chemically treated and sedimented as supplied to the coke.bed. Coke.bed effluent. Quantity treated. Gallons. Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. 1899 Jan. 21 5.000 2.600 Nil Trace 1.100 0.606 0.0420 0.5017 540,350 ” 23 551,050 1.980 0.1610 Nil 0.413 0.0322 0.8640 561,750 ” 24 3.366 0.1330 ” 0.452 0.0280 0.5970 561,750 ” 25 3.267 0.0280 ” 0.442 Trace 0.5781 561,750 ” 26 3.900 0.0140 0.0654 0.557 0.0140 0.2922 529,650 ” 27 561,750 3.600 0.0210 0.0309 0.546 0.0140 0.1947 535,000 ” 28 561,750 3.100 Nil 0.1456 0.515 0.0140 0.7879 545,700' ” 30 529,067 4.300 Trace 0.660 0.0238 0.1524 551,050 ” 31 545,700 5.100 0.0420 0.0767 0.700 0.0210 0.1146 540,350 Feb. 1 535,000 5.400 0.0140 0.0422 0.800 0.0140 0.0854 535,000 508,250 ” 2 5.500 Nil 0.0437 0.840 0.0210 0.1027 563,419 ” 3 546,342 5.000 ” Trace 0.800 0.0210 0.0890 557,554 518,950 ” 4 4.500 ” ” 0.740 0.0280 0.1532 535,000 526,300 ” 6 4.300 0.1050 Nil 0.680 0.0140 0.2379 551,050 489,431 ” 7 3.800 0.1260 0.1052 0.630 0.0350 0.1937 529,650 535,000 ” 8 3.300 0.0910 Nil 0.693 0.0210 0.0877 502,900 ” 9 512,195 1.400 0.1750 1.0356 0.500 0.0560 0.5996 518,950 ” 10 2.700 0.1400 0.0931 0.592 0.0308 0.2361 540,650 ” 11 544,639 2.900 Nil 0.0512 0.604 0.0280 0.0510 518,950 527,371 ” 13 3.100 0.0700 Nil 0.653 0.0210 0.3371 507,280 481,500 ” 14 3.800 Nil 0.0162 0.704 0.0210 0.3377 497,235 497,235 ” 15 4.200 0.0140 0.0285 0.690 0.0210 0.3102 511,772 486,850 ” 16 3.900 0.1400 0.1062 0.720 0.0280 0.2682 492,200 497,550 ” 17 4.500 0.0280 0.0914 0.710 0.0280 0.2351 518,950 508,250 ” 18 4.200 Nil 0.0531 0.780 0.0280 0.0930 508,250 502,382 ” 20 4.500 0.0210 0.0652 0.680 0.0210 0.2490 524,300 508,250 ” 21 5.000 Nil Trace 0.710 0.0140 0.1929 540,350 502,800 ” 22 4.600 0.0140 0.0516 0.770 0.0210 0.0284 535,000 508,250 ” 23 2.400 Trace 0.0900 0.620 0.0210 Nil 492,200 ” 24 4.100 0.0350 0.0331 0.660 0.0280 ” 492,200 497,550 ” 25 3.800 Nil 0.1144 0.630 00420 00080 513,600 518,950 ” 27 3.600 0.0420 0.0692 0.610 00280 00900 517,326 508,250 ” 28 4.000 0.0140 0.0140 0.622 00280 0.2038 502,900 518,950 March 6 4.500 0.0140 0.0604 0.690 00350 0.7168 535,000 508,250 ” 7 5.500 0.0070 0.0392 0.810 0.0280 0.2651 492,439 513,600 ” 8 5.300 Nil 0.1944 0.800 00140 00866 486,850 508,250 29 Table 7—(continued). Date, 1898. Sewage chemically treated and sedimented as supplied to the coke.bed. Coke.bed effluent. Quantity treated. Gallons. Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. 1899. March 9 5.600 0.0280 0.0370 0.870 0.0140 0.1572 486,850 481,500 ” 10 4.400 0.0280 0.0857 0.720 0.0140 Nil 487,190 492,200 ” 11 3.100 Nil 0.1337 0.660 0.0140 0.1510 483,601 May 8 2.885 Nil 0.1075 0.798 0.3500 10.5910 657,322 ” 9 4.808 0.0070 0.1630 0.879 0.4200 7.9369 633,847 ” 10 5.000 Nil 0.0450 0.919 0.2800 4.2037 642,000 ” 15 2.115 ” 0.1712 0.608 0.0462 4.3138 615,250 ” 16 3.654 ” Nil 0.500 0.0700 2.4769 615,250 ” 17 2.885 ” 0.1662 0.476 0.0350 2.2525 563,419 ” 18 3.010 ” 0.1162 0.408 0.0308 1.4192 549.415 ” 19 4.423 Trace Trace 0.592 0.0420 1.4811 563,419 ” 20 563,419 ” 23 584,102 ” 24 2.981 Nil 0.1100 0.524 0.0280 0.9570 563,419 ” 25 2.404 ” 0.1731 0.486 0.0238 0.7087 539,943 ” 26 2.981 ” 0.1206 0.467 0.0280 0.5276 521,224 ” 27 2.788 ” 0 0525 0.505 00350 0.4500 539,943 ” 29 3.654 ” 0.1168 0.476 0.0280 0.9957 563,419 ” 30 4.327 ” 0.1194 0.514 0.0462 1.1925 563,419 577,800 ” 31 3.750 ” Nil 0.604 0.0322 0.6359 539,943 544,639 June 1 3.558 ” 0.0662 0.584 0.0280 0.3826 567,100 539,943 ” 2 3.077 ” 0.1125 0.554 0.0280 0.6338 567,100 549,334 ” 3 2.788 ” 0.0187 0.535 0.0560 0.6752 572,450 516,468 ” 5 3.654 00140 0.0747 0.554 0.0210 1.0665 554,029 567,100 ” 6 3.173 Nil 0.0487 0.510 0.0210 0.6646 567,100 551,750 ” 7 1.827 ” 0.0737 0.451 0.0182 0.4049 540,350 ” 8 2.855 ” 0.1043 0.510 0.0210 01459 577,800 545,700 ” 9 3.077 ” 0.0675 0.471 Trace 0.2375 472,090 567,100 ” 10 2.404 ” 0.0618 0.500 0.0210 0.3277 549,334 518,950 ” 12 3.173 0 0070 0.1011 0.490 0.0182 0.2780 544,638 529,650 ” 13 3.269 Nil 0.0881 0.500 0.0238 0.5830 539,943 529,650 ” 14 4.528 ” 0.0681 0.667 0.0210 0.3015 539,943 540.350 ” 15 4.423 ” 0.0700 0.725 0.0420 0.2517 549,333 540,350 ” 16 4.134 ” 0.0262 0.725 0.0350 0.1975 530,553 508,250 ” 17 511,772 518,950 ” 19 4.423 ” 0.0900 0.676 0.0210 0.7509 516,468 508,250 ” 20 4.038 0.0042 0.0795 0.689 0.0350 0.6212 532,393 508,250 ” 21 4.528 Nil 0.1400 0.621 0.0210 0.2127 530,553 497,550 ” 22 2.788 ” 0.0744 0.621 0.0210 0.1165 502,382 497,550 ” 23 1000 ” 0.1394 0.466 0.0238 0.2393 527,371 ” 24 3.173 ” 0.0987 0.641 0.0350 0.1075 508,250 527,371 ” 26 2.885 ” 0.1944 0.600 0.0238 0.4149 508,250 527,371 ” 27 3.269 ” 0.0862 0.610 0.0280 0.3445 492,200 512,303 30 Table 7—(continued). Date, 1898. Sewage chemically treated and sedimented as supplied to the coke.bed. Coke.bed effluent. Quantity treated. Gallons. Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as By the total oxidisable matter.. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. 1899. June 28 3.558 Nil. 0.1075 0.630 0.0280 0.5101 481,500 502,900 ” 29 3.269 Trace 0.0381 0.640 0.0322 0.4447 508,250 551,050 ” 30 2.788 Nil 0.1606 0.590 0.0280 0.3376 497,550 502,900 July 1 2.019 ” 0.1337 0.530 0.0378 0.5684 481,500 508,250 ” 3 3.365 ” 0.0994 0.520 0.0238 0.6343 535,000 518,950 ” 4 3.846 ” 0.0537 0.529 0.0280 0.5170 508,250 508,250 ” 5 3.558 ” 0.0862 0.559 0.0280 0.3901 486,850 508,250 ” 6 1.635 ” 0.1137 0.451 Trace 0.2843 486,850 ” 7 2.308 ” 0.0562 0.539 0.0378 0.1865 527,371 507,077 ” 8 1.827 ” 0.1034 0.471 0.0308 0.1804 497,550 486,850 ” 10 2.212 ” 0.0650 0.500 0.0280 0.5657 527,371 447,672 ” 11 2.971 ” 0.0331 0.622 0.0238 0.1331 497,550 486,850 ” 12 3.269 ” 0.1037 0.674 0.0350 0.2437 527,371 481,500 ” 13 2.971 ” 0.1012 0.643 0.0350 0.2100 507,281 481,500 ” 14 2.788 ” 0.1387 0.582 Nil 0.2331 497,550 451,742 ” 15 2.596 ” 0.0337 0.674 0.0448 0.2064 496,409 508,250 ” 17 3.048 ” 0.2200 0.581 0.0252 0.5668 492,992 481,500 ” 18 2.962 ” 0.0787 0.612 0.0280 0.5890 492,992 492,200 ” 19 2.962 ” Trace 0.581 0.0350 1.8051 488.297 513,600 ” 20 2.761 ” ” 0.561 0.0280 0.0980 497,550 497,550 ” 21 2.381 ” 0.551 0.0210 0.0984 486,850 502,900 ” 22 1.619 ” 0.0772 0.490 0.0238 0.1116 492,200 ” 24 2.380 ” 0.1758 0.514 0.0210 0.4592 535,000 518,950 ” 25 3.238 ” 0.2491 0.476 0.0210 0.2823 508,250 486,850 ” 26 3.052 ” 0.1807 0.609 0.0210 0.1620 481,500 481,500 ” 27 3.052 ” 0.1882 0.580 0.0252 0.4280 502,900 447,010 ” 28 2.631 ” 0.1206 0.628 0.0252 0.3384 455,811 446,040 ” 29 Lost ” 0.2930 0.636 0.0210 0.3370 502,258 422,564 ” 31 3.093 ” 0.1791 0.555 0.0210 0.2208 492,213 446,040 Aug. 1 3.505 ” 0.1796 0.572 0.0182 0.3408 399,605 377,229 ” 2 2.268 ” 0.2346 0.570 0.0210 0.3321 416,979 508,250 ” 3 3.402 0.2392 0.580 0.0210 0.3951 481,500 470,800 ” 4 3.505 ” 01297 0.580 0.0128 0.2883 481,500 454,750 ” 5 481,500 ” 8 1.702 ” 0.1785 0.534 0.0210 0.2456 444,050 470,800 31 Table 7—(continued). Date, 1898. Sewage chemically treated and sedimented as supplied to the coke.bed. Coke.bed effluent. Quantity treated. Gallons. Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. 1899. Aug. 9 2.062 Nil. 0.1477 0.485 0.0140 0.2827 465,450 465,450 ” 10 2.371 ” 0.2415 0.485 0.0210 0.9540 470,800 454,750 ” 11 2.500 ” 0.3016 0.566 0.0182 0.4639 465,450 454,750 ” 12 2.500 ” 0.2378 0.639 0.0252 0.3377 470,800 455,285 ” 14 2.700 ” 0.2366 0.601 0.0210 0.2310 422,564 454,750 ” 15 2.900 ” 0.3696 0.592 0.0210 0.5131 422,564 454,750 ” 16 2.900 ” 0.0705 0.563 0.0210 0.4603 422,564 492,200 ” 17 2.500 ” 0.1186 0.533 0.0182 0.2235 422,564 454,750 ” 18 2.400 ” 0.1201 0.524 0.0182 0.2836 417,869 460,100 ” 19 1.700 ” 0.3603 0.512 0.0238 0.5799 427,259 ” 21 2.083 ” 0.1790 0.500 0.0210 0.3167 508.250 422,564 ” 22 2.500 ” 0.2986 0.521 0.0210 0.5723 470,800 454,750 ” 23 2.916 ” 0.1068 0.521 0.0210 0.3418 454,750 460,100 ” 24 2.395 ” 0.3582 0.574 0.0140 0.5841 481,500 460,100 ” 25 2.812 ” 0.3058 0.680 0.0128 0.5847 406,975 460,100 ” 26 2.500 ” 0.4112 0.667 0.0252 0.7454 406,975 427,260 ” 28 3.226 ” 0.2351 0.594 0.0140 0.3503 481,500 454,750 ” 29 3.215 ” 0.3611 0.625 0.0210 0.5769 454,750 454,750 ” 30 2.796 ” 0.0850 0.583 0.0140 0.2876 454,750 454,750 ” 31 2.688 ” 0.2398 0.427 0.0210 0.4607 481,500 454,750 Sept. 1 4.285 ” 0.0620 0.670 0.0140 0.2258 422,564 454,750 ” 2 2.526 ” 0.2406 0.680 0 0210 0.4615 454,750 ” 4 2.211 ” 0.4737 0.503 0.0140 0.6966 481,500 ” 454,750 ” 5 2.812 ” 0.3551 0.505 0.0140 0.5791 470,800 422,564 ” 6 1.915 ” 0.2996 0.670 0.0112 0.4643 422,564 454,750 ” 7 2.340 ” 0.4765 0.558 0.0182 0.5824 465,450 454,750 ” 8 2.447 ” 0.3558 0.579 0.0182 0.5718 460,100 454,750 ” 9 3.469 ” 0.2928 0.706 0.0210 0.5900 460,100 422,564 ” 11 2.842 ” 0.1081 0.645 0.0182 0.2243 481,500 454,750 ” 12 2.316 ” 0.2008 0.624 0.0182 0.4099 431,955 460,100 ” 13 3.263 ” 0.0401 0.763 0.0210 0.0972 422,564 431,955 ” 14 2.128 ” 0.2436 0.581 0.0182 0.3453 427,260 465,450 ” 15 2.978 ” 0.2378 0.354 0.0182 0.3411 408,479 454,750 ” 16 2.446 ” 0.2980 0.623 0.0210 0.6960 417,869 419,184 ” 18 2.872 ” 0.0720 0.494 0.0140 0.4628 431,955 465,450 32 Table 7—(continued). Date, 1898. Sewage chemically treated and sedimented as supplied to the coke.bed. Coke.bed effluent. Quantity treated. Gallons. Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. 1899. Sept. 19 2.021 Nil. 0.2410 0.494 0.0140 0.3470 422,564 ” 20 3.191 ” 0.2916 0.634 0.0210 0.7043 455,285 460,100 ” 21 3.404 ” 0.2384 0.553 0.0280 0.7890 454,750 454,750 ” 22 3.085 ” 0.1315 0.559 0.0210 0.6045 454,750 454,750 ” 23 3.085 ” 0.3029 0.602 0.0182 1.0698 454,750 470,800 ” 25 3.298 ” 0.3586 0.505 0.0140 0.5726 481,500 454,750 ” 26 3.723 ” 0.2391 0.559 0.0182 0.4045 454,750 460,100 ” 27 4.042 ” 0.1930 0.602 0.0140 0.5900 454,750 454,750 ” 28 3.229 ” 0.1986 0.495 0.0140 0.4030 454,750 460,100 ” 29 2.708 ” 0.3460 0.580 0.0280 0.5715 481,500 460,976 ” 30 2.187 ” 0.3758 0.428 0.0210 0.5845 454,750 454,750 Oct. 2 3.645 ” 0.3645 0.523 0.0182 0.6042 455,285 455,285 ” 3 2.000 ” 0.2385 0.452 0.0140 0.3491 454,750 460,100 ” 4 2.812 ” 0.6206 0.428 0.0182 1.4370 454,750 ” 5 2.105 ” 0.4320 0.750 0.0140 0.6018 454.750 454,750 ” 6 2.812 ” 0.4922 0.490 0.0140 0.8105 449,400 454,750 ” 7 2.947 ” 0.4800 0.600 0.0182 0.8236 454,750 454,750 ” 9 2.812 ” 0.1325 0.620 0.0140 0.4785 470,800 406,974 ” 10 2.947 ” 0.2912 0.700 0.0218 0.5882 454,750 454,750 ” 11 3.651 ” 0.3578 0.600 0.0218 0.5732 454,750 455,285 ” 12 3.654 ” 0.3936 0.660 0.0210 0.7047 449,400 454,750 ” 13 4.038 ” 0.3624 0.690 0.0210 0.5830 454,750 454,750 ” 14 3.654 ” 0.2224 0.660 0.0280 0.4586 422,564 454,750 ” 16 3.461 ” 0.1780 0.480 0.0210 0.4505 431,955 454,750 ” 17 3.557 ” 0.2417 0.605 0.0210 0.3975 454,750 454,750 ” 18 3.365 2.211 ” 0.3035 0.543 0.456 0.0140 0.4767 460,100 ” 19 4.059 2.673 ” 0.3728 0.620 0.500 0.0140 0.4765 454,750 454,750 ” 20 3.663 2.475 ” 0.3993 0.590 0.480 0.0182 0.5980 454,750 454,750 ” 21 3.861 2.574 ” 0.2486 0.610 0.450 0.0182 0.4047 454,750 441,987 ” 23 4.507 3.431 ” 0.1844 0.666 0.558 0.0140 0.3526 486,850 465,450 ” 24 5.098 3.833 ” 0.2359 0.764 0.607 00140 0.4683 460,100 465,450 ” 25 5.000 3.725 ” 0.1802 0.794 0.607 00210 0.3416 460,100 454,750 ” 26 4.803 3.431 ” 0.0977 0.754 0.598 0.0182 0.2171 460,100 454,750 ” 27 4.215 3.431 ” 0.0871 0.784 0.637 0.0182 0.2843 454,750 454,750 ” 28 3.333 2.058 ” 0.0300 0.663 0.500 00182 0.0607 438,212 454,750 ” 30 3.725 2.549 ” 0.0505 0.672 0.427 0.0140 0.0787 443,9( 3 454,750 33 Table 7—(continued). Date, 1898. Sewage chemically treated and sedimented as supplied to the coke.bed. Coke.bed effluent. Quantity treated. Gallons. Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. 1899. Oct. 31 5.294 3.725 Nil. 0.0592 0.618 0.518 0.0140 0.1381 449,400 454,750 Nov. 1 4.607 3.333 0.1846 0.690 0.545 0.0140 0.4785 454,750 454,750 ” 2 3.823 2.450 0.0565 0.520 0429 0.0280 0.0905 454,750 454,750 ” 3 2.941 1.862 0.1120 0.0388 0.591 0.469 0.0182 0.3509 460,100 ” 4 1.960 1.078 0.0840 0.3460 0.540 0.387 0.0350 0.4618 472,358 455,285 ” 6 2.058 1.274 0.1120 0.2560 0.415 0.336 0.0280 0.3945 455,285 438,212 ” 7 3.333 2.549 0.5600 0.0525 0.574 0.455 0.0350 0.3340 455,285 454,750 ” 8 4.117 2.254 0.0420 0.3013 0.504 0.396 0.0210 0.5996 454,750 460,100 ” 9 3.137 2.254 0.0560 0.0867 0.554 0.445 0.0140 0.2923 454,750 454,750 ” 10 4.126 2.647 0.0700 0.2201 0.416 0.307 0.0210 0.3040 422,564 422,564 ” 11 2.647 1.764 Nil Trace 0.526 0.419 0.0210 0.2133 422,564 422,564 ” 13 4.216 3.333 ” 0.0603 0.616 0.482 0.0210 0.3324 422,564 454,750 ” 14 4.901 3.823 ” 0.1224 0.660 0.526 0.0280 0.2717 422,564 422,564 ” 15 4.500 3.500 ” 0.1806 0.634 0.461 0.0210 0.3491 347,482 422,564 ” 16 4.400 4.000 ” 0.0973 0.596 0.480 0.0280 0.3370 422,564 454,750 ” 17 1.700 1.800 ” 0.0354 0.443 0.413 0.0210 0.3541 460,100 ” 18 4.400 2.600 ” 0.0675 0.634 0.480 0.0420 0.4360 422,564 347,482 ” 20 4.200 3.200 ” 0.0596 0.586 0.471 0.0420 0.4560 465,450 454,750 ” 21 4.803 3.725 ” 0.1810 0.622 0.513 0.0420 0.5680 422,564 347,482 ” 22 5196 4.117 ” 0.1146 0.651 0.522 0.0420 0.4154 422,564 454,750 ” 23 4.313 3.529 0.0560 0.2420 0.963 0.899 0.0700 0.6475 347,482 366,277 ” 24 4.705 3.529 Nil 0.3067 0.558 0.477 0.0560 0.4388 354.432 347,482 ” 25 4.356 3.465 ” 0.0581 0.563 0.447 0.0420 0.1917 429,259 452,750 ” 27 5.248 4.455 ” 0.0800 0.660 0.602 0.0140 0.5360 454,750 347,482 ” 28 5.800 4.500 0.0280 0.0333 0.702 0.615 0.0322 0.1540 465,450 449,400 ” 29 5.700 4.200 0.0140 0.0985 0.760 0.635 0.0322 0.0928 454,750 454,750 ” 30 5.500 4.300 0.0140 0.0170 0.712 0.635 0.0322 0.0102 465,450 470,800 Dec. 1 5.700 4.500 0.0322 0.0481 0.731 0.630 0.0210 0.1480 465,450 460,976 ” 2 3.300 2.200 Nil 0.3006 0.811 0.555 0.0210 0.4638 455,285 ” 4 3.900 2.600 0.0420 0.2041 Lost 0.666 0.0280 0.2766 454,750 426,830 ” 5 3.400 2.900 0.0280 0.3445 0.759 0601 0.0210 0.5923 454,750 426,830 ” 6 4.200 3.700 Nil 0.0606 0.685 0.527 0.0210 0.2802 455,285 432,521 ” 7 5.445 4.059 0.0598 0.734 0.632 0.0210 0.2218 454,750 438,212 ” 8 5.148 4.059 0.0560 0.0635 0.663 0561 0.0280 0.1010 465,450 386,626 ” 9 4.800 3.300 Nil 0.1231 0.650 0.620 0.0420 0.3251 454,750 454,750 ” 11 5.600 4.700 ” 0.2481 0.740 0.670 0.0420 0.5714 454,750 454,750 [5] 34 Table 7—(continued). Date, 189&. Sewage chemically treated and sedimented as supplied to the coke.bed. Coke.bed effluent. Quantity treated. Gallons. Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. Nitrogen as By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. 1899. Dec. 12 6.000 5.400 Nil 0.1172 0.740 0.700 0.0420 0.5473 454,750 444,050 ” 13 6.300 5.600 ” Trace 0.720 0.680 0.0350 0.2110 422,564 449,400 ” 14 5.200 4.900 ” 0.2975 0.708 0.669 0.0420 0.3710 454,750 438,700 ” 15 4.900 4.300 0.0560 0.1300 0.660 0.583 0.0420 0.2547 422,564 438,700 ” 16 3.400 1.900 Nil 0.2493 0.349 0.349 0.0420 0.3236 454,750 ” 18 4.000 3.600 0.0560 0.0616 0.543 0.436 0.0420 0.2519 454,750 454,750 ” 19 4.300 3.400 0.0560 0.1808 0.485 0.405 0.0420 0.4155 438,700 454,750 ” 20 5.000 4.200 0.0560 0.0041 0.663 0.485 0.0350 0.3874 440,050 454,750 ” 21 5.200 4.000 0.0560 0.0546 0.574 0.465 0.0420 0.2688 454,750 454,750 ” 22 6.100 5.500 0.0420 0.1978 0.841 0.742 0.0280 0.3335 440,050 ” 27 6.100 4.900 00490 0.0710 0.723 0.523 0.0700 0.5400 406,974 454,750 ” 28 5.800 4.900 0.0560 0.0558 0.628 0.48 0.0210 0.5332 454,750 454,750 ” 29 5.300 4.300 0.0420 0.069 0.828 0.666 0.0140 0.4425 454,750 444,050 ” 30 4.300 2.900 Nil 0.1167 0.543 0.467 0.0280 0.3802 454,750 Averages. Date. Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in 4 hours. Nitrogen as Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in 4 hours. Nitrogen as Remarks. By the total oxidisable matter. By the dis[???]ved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. By the total oxidisable matter. By the dissolved oxidisable matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. 1898 One filling. May 12—May 23 3.039 0.623 May 25—July 2 2.655 Nil 0.0059 0.509 0.0252 0.1145 July 4—July 29 2.877 Nil 0.0061 0.624 0.0221 0.0615 Two fillings. Nov. 8—Nov. 19 5.045 3.525 Nil 0.1114 1.018 0.567 0.0474 0.6738 One filling. 1899 Nov. 21—Jan. 21 5.465 4.108 00610 0.0594 1.183 0.613 0.0321 0.3979 Two fillings. 1899 Jan. 23—Mar. 11 3.987 00396 0.0783 0.665 0.0233 0.2407 May 8—Oct. 17 2.976 00003 0.1814 0.574 0.0308 0.7118 Two fillings after firstthreeweeks. Oct. 18—Dec. 30 4.443 3.393 0.0291 0.1411 0.642 0529 0.0290 0.3483 1898 May 12—Julv 2 2.726 Nil 0.0059 0.530 0.0252 0.1145 One filling. 1899 Nov. 21—Mar. 11 5.465 4.057 0.0518 0.0683 1.183 0.635 0.0283 0.3300 Two fillings. 1899 May 8—Dec. 30 4.443 3.109 0.0095 0.1686 0.643 0.560 0.0302 0.5963 1898 1899 May 12—Dec. 30 4.921 3.306 0.0186 0.1158 0.900 0.580 0.0294 0.4531 Whole period. Percentage Purification. 1898 May 12—July 2 80.5 1899 Nov. 21—Mar. 11 78.4 84.3 1899 May 8—Dec. 30 85.5 82.0 35 2.—CROSSNESS RESULTS. Table 8.—Details of the Analytical Results obtained from the Crude Sewage and the Effluent from the Bacterial Beds. Date. Crude sewage. Coke-bed effluent. Number of fillings per day. Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours by the dissolved putrescible matter. Nitrogen as Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours by the dissolved putrescible matter. Nitrogen as Nitrite. Nitrate. Nitrite. Nitrate. 1899. Feb. 27 One 3.039 Nil Nil 1.614 0.014 Trace 28 „ 4.300 „ „ 2.500 Trace „ Mar. 1 „ 2.600 „ „ 1.500 Nil Nil 2 „ 3.418 „ „ 1.827 0.007 0.030 3 „ 4.620 „ „ 2.815 Trace Nil 4 „ 2.942 „ „ 1.629 Nil „ 6 „ 3.511 „ „ 2.021 0.014 Trace 7 „ 2.766 0.021 „ 1.915 0.070 „ 8 „ 2.872 Trace „ 0.958 0.084 0.052 10 „ 3.191 Nil „ 1.489 Nil 0.095 11 „ 3.085 „ Trace 1.489 0.021 0.040 13 „ 3.737 0.014 Nil 1.212 0.021 0.110 14 „ 2.525 Nil Trace 0.999 Trace 0.037 15 „ 2.632 „ Nil 0.947 Nil Trace 16 „ 3.263 „ „ 1.158 „ 0.077 17 „ 2.947 „ „ 1.158 0.021 Trace 18 ” 3.158 „ 1.370 0.035 0.136 20 „ 2.604 „ „ 1042 0.070 Trace 21 „ 4.271 „ „ 1.562 0.014 0143 22 „ 6.459 Trace „ 3.125 0.021 0.083 23 „ 3.263 0.007 „ 1.369 0.014 0.071 24 „ 4.062 Nil „ 1.770 0.007 0.128 26 „ 2.917 „ „ 1.042 0.021 0.114 27 Two 3.036 Trace „ 1.518 Nil 0.142 28 „ 3.482 Nil „ 1.875 0.021 Nil 29 „ 2.679 „ „ 1.429 0.007 0.109 April 4 „ 3.100 „ „ 1.400 0.042 Trace 5 „ 2.000 „ „ 1.200 0.014 0.123 6 „ 3.200 Trace „ 1.800 Nil 0.038 7 „ 2.800 0.028 0.011 1.400 0.007 0.080 8 One 2.700 Nil Nil 1.500 0.014 0.078 10 Two 3.725 0.014 „ 1.961 0.007 0.056 11 „ 3.039 Nil „ 1.470 0.014 0.213 12 „ 4.314 Trace „ 2.568 0.070 0.044 13 „ 2.451 0.007 Trace 1.372 Nil 0.081 14 „ 3.921 Nil Nil 2.451 0.014 0.060 15 One 3.137 0.021 „ 1.862 0.014 0.138 17 „ 4.301 Nil „ 2.680 0.028 0.136 18 Two 3.824 0.007 Trace 2.680 0.014 0.054 19 „ 2.574 Trace Nil 1.453 0.042 0.285 20 „ 5.247 Nil „ 3.014 Nil Trace 21 „ 4.444 „ „ 2.525 0.014 0.184 22 One 4.646 0.021 „ 3.030 0.007 0.253 24 Two 3.878 0.028 Trace 2.245 0.014 0.210 25 „ 2.653 Trace Nil 1.617 Trace Trace 26 „ 2.842 Nil „ 1.789 Nil 0.322 27 „ 2.857 „ Trace 1.667 0.021 0.148 28 „ 4.742 0.007 0.034 2.755 0.056 0.180 29 One 3.542 0.007 Nil 2.371 0.042 Trace May 1 Two 2.846 0.014 „ 1.579 Trace 0.170 2 „ 2.340 Nil „ 1.474 0.070 0.094 3 „ 3.298 „ „ 1.959 0.021 0.208 4 „ 4.480 „ „ 2.660 Nil 0.045 5 One 3.830 Trace „ 2.340 0.007 0.241 6 „ 3.300 0.007 Trace 1.800 0.014 Trace 8 Two 4.216 Nil „ 2.451 Nil 0.180 9 „ 3.301 „ Nil 1.863 Trace 0.094 10 „ 2.277 „ „ 1.078 0.056 0.231 11 „ 2.784 „ „ 1.443 0.070 Trace 12 One 3.299 „ „ 1.735 0.014 Nil 13 „ 2.143 „ „ 1.237 0.028 0.113 15 Two 3.535 „ „ 1.919 0.023 Nil 16 „ 4.124 „ „ 2.755 Trace „ 17 „ 2.300 „ „ 1.400 0.007 0.204 18 „ 3.800 0.035 „ 2.000 0.098 0.046 19 „ 1.700 Nil „ 0.800 0.021 0.133 24 „ 4.255 „ „ 2.553 0.042 0.320 25 „ 3.298 „ „ 1.702 0.070 0.055 26 „ 2.826 „ „ 1.277 0.070 0.121 27 One 2.766 „ „ 1.596 0.084 0.219 29 Two 2.632 0.014 „ 1.579 0.035 0.147 36 Table 8.—(continued). Date. Crude sewage. Coke-bed effluent. Number of fillings per day. Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours by the dissolved putrescible mattei. Nitrogen as Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours by the lissolved putrescible matter. Nitrogen as Nitrite. Nitrate. Nitrite. Nitrate. 1899. May 30 Two 3-298 Nil Nil 2021 0-007 0-253 31 99 3958 99 2-283 0070 0-273 June 1 99 3-263 ,, 99 1-789 0028 Nil 2 99 2-900 11 99 1-400 0028 0128 3 One 2-800 11 99 1-5C0 0-014 Trace 5 Two 2-727 11 99 1-313 0070 6 99 3-400 0-028 99 1-900 0140 Nil 7 99 3-900 Nil 99 2-500 0 098 0-045 8 One 2-772 11 99 1-881 0014 0-157 9 99 3-267 0-028 99 1-683 0021 0-108 19 Two 3-737 0-014 99 2-020 0 084 0-320 20 99 2-653 Nil 99 1-530 0-070 0-038 21 J* 4-388 11 99 2-653 0-014 0-207 22 99 3-500 0007 Trace 1-900 0028 0114 23 99 3-367 Nil Nil 2-041 Nil 0-083 24 One 2-449 11 99 1-326 0-042 0-039 26 Two 3-438 0014 99 1-875 Nil Trace 27 99 2-813 Nil 99 1-458 99 Nil 28 99 2-604 0-007 99 1-458 0-028 0-204 29 99 1-649 Nil 99 0-825 0007 Trace 30 91 4-845 11 99 2165 Nil 0-183 July 1 One 2165 Trace 99 1134 0035 0-256 3 Two 1-920 Nil 99 1010 0-007 Trace 4 99 1-735 11 99 0-512 Trace 0-080 5 99 2020 19 99 1111 0-014 Nil 6 99 2-755 99 99 1-224 0021 0-317 7 One 1-837 » 99 1021 Trace 0-148 10 Two 2376 99 99 1-386 Nil Trace 11 99 3000 Trace 99 1-700 99 0055 14 99 2-323 Nil 99 1-414 0070 0146 15 One 2-930 Trace 99 1-515 Trace 0-106 17 Two 4-615 11 Trace 2-308 0-333 18 99 3-516 Nil Nil 1-319 Nil 0134 19 99 2-967 « 99 1-648 99 Nil 20 99 3-696 Trace 99 2-174 Trace 0-083 21 One 2-777 Nil 99 1-555 0068 25 Two " 3152 99 1-739 Nil 0-873 31 One 2-222 99 0-889 0-070 0-492 Aug. 1 Two 2-889 11 99 1-222 Nil Nil 2 99 4-667 11 11 2-667 91 0-485 3 99 2-857 11 11 1-758 0-044 Nil 4 99 3-763 11 91 2-473 Trace 0-364 9 99 3-778 11 99 2111 0-028 Nil 10 99 3-736 11 91 2-088 Trace 0-358 11 11 3-736 11 99 2-527 Nil Nil 12 One 3-804 11 99 2 069 Trace 14 11 2-527 11 99 2-087 0-2647 15 Two 3-951 11 99 2-790 Nil 16 11 3493 11 99 1-929 0-5045 21 One 4-942 11 2-414 Nil 22 Two 4-369 ») 99 2-896 11 23 11 4045 11 1-574 24 19 4-943 11 99 2-248 11 0-6271 25 11 4-118 11 99 1-882 0056 0-1740 26 One 3-529 11 99 1412 Trace 1-1025 28 Two 5048 11 99 2041 00056 Nil 29 11 5102 11 99 2-245 Trace Trace 30 11 3-265 11 99 2-347 Nil 0-5294 31 11 3-939 11 1-919 0 035 Nil Sept. 1 11 3-571 )) 9) 1-735 Nil 2 One 3-300 9) 99 1190 0-1765 4 Two 2 525 11 99 1-313 Nil 5 11 3-300 11 99 1100 6 11 3 030 11 99 1-717 0-014 7 11 3-366 11 99 1-735 0 028 0-3770 9 One 2-857 11 99 2-449 Nil Nil 11 Two 2-857 1-633 12 11 4-040 11 99 1-616 0-3860 13 11 4-286 91 2-245 Nil 14 11 4-592 19 1-837 15 >1 1-020 99 11 0-918 16 One 2-200 99 99 1-700 0-2647 0 0112 18 Two 3-700 99 99 1-400 Nil Nil 37 Table 8.—(continued). Date. Crude sewage. Coke-bed effluent. Number of fillings per day. Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours by the dissolved putrescible mattei. Nitrogen as Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours by the dissolved putrescible matter. Nitrogen as Nitrite. Nitrate. Nitrite. Nitrate. 1899. Sept. 19 Two 4-216 Nil Nil 1-667 Trace 0-0098 20 » 4-257 11 11 1-881 0-2164 Nil 21 n 4-300 11 11 1-600 Nil Trace 22 3900 11 11 1-700 11 Nil 23 One 3-431 11 11 1-667 0-0916 11 25 Two 2'871 11 11 1-485 Nil 11 26 4-608 11 11 1-667 Trace 0-0280 27 11 2-857 11 11 1-099 Nil Trace 28 )> 4-725 11 11 1-868 Nil 29 2-826 11 11 1-304 Trace Oct. 2 11 2-747 00168 11 1-648 0-0350 11 3 4-505 Nil 11 1-319 0-0280 Trace 4 11 5 000 11 11 2127 0-0210 0-3494 5 11 4-176 11 01752 1-649 Nil Trace 6 11 4-222 11 Nil 1-555 Nil 7 One 3-279 11 jj 0-659 11 9 Two 4-945 11 11 1-760 11 13 One 4-456 11 11 1-521 11 11 16 »» 2151 11 11 1182 00378 0-2361 23 11 4-545 11 11 1-515 0-3930 Trace Date. 1899. Number of fillings per day. Ckudb Sewage. Coke-Bed Effluent. Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in 4 hours. Nitrogen as Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in 4 hours. Nitrogen as By the total putrescible matter. By the dissolved putrescible mitter. Nitrite. Nitrate. By the total putrescible matter. By the dissolved putrescible matter. Nitrite. Nitrate. Nov. 7 Two 6-000 2-946 0 0952 Trace 2-321 1-473 0-3780 1-2117 8 n 6-000 4-210 Nil 2-936 2-326 0-2100 10980 9 »» 6-000 3053 00168 0-0573 2-210 1-358 0-1470 0-4011 10 11 6-355 2-917 00070 Nil 2-601 1-500 0-0798 Nil 11 One 6314 2-946 Nil 2-321 1-358 01470 0-7270 14 Two 6-288 3-814 11 11 1 •855 1-855 Nil Nil 15 ♦» 7031 3-609 11 11 2-371 1-855 11 11 16 11 6-041 3-442 11 11 2-500 2-396 11 17 11 5051 3-300 11 2062 1-670 11 18 One 4-737 3-263 11 11 2-316 2-026 11 01763 20 Two 5-625 4-026 11 11 1-562 1-458 00393 Trace 21 6-459 6-159 11 11 2-917 2-078 Nil 0-0886 22 »> 6-296 4-722 11 11 2-315 2129 Trace 23 9-074 5-642 11 00796 2129 2037 11 01436 24 11 7-685 4-629 11 Nil 2-407 1-825 11 Nil 25 One 4-537 2-685 11 )) 1-388 1-203 11 27 Two 9174 6*055 11 3119 2-752 11 0-0591 28 11 8-718 5-779 11 3-846 3-211 11 0-0835 29 7-830 4-710 } j 11 2-547 1-792 11 01743 30 » 7-339 4-312 11 11 2-568 1-926 11 Trace Dec. 1 »> 6-605 3-669 11 2-568 1-926 2 One 6-880 5-229 11 1-834 1-642 Nil 4 Two 9174 6-330 11 11 2-110 1-468 11 5 11 7-957 4-731 11 11 2-105 1-720 11 6 >> 8125 5-834 11 11 2-917 1-979 11 7 11 7-579 5-473 3-579 2-631 8 11 7-683 4-734 11 11 2-726 2000 11 9 One 3-871 2-903 jj 11 2-473 1-496 11 12 7-938 5-361 Trace 2165 1-236 0-028 0-3481 13 Two 7-526 5051 11 Nil 2-887 2-062 Nil Trace ]4 >> 6-354 4-583 ■?> 2-500 1-536 11 Nil 15 One 6-956 5-217 11 11 2-826 2-282 11 16 }? 6-210 5-369 11 11 2-105 1-894 11 18 Two 4-376 3-541 11 2-601 1-771 19 One 9-592 6-938 0-007 Trace 5102 2-347 0-091 0-2383 20 >> 9-278 6-701 Nil Nil 4020 3-299 Nil Nil 21 11 5-307 3-775 11 Trace 2-347 1-836 11 11 01179 22 14-949 8-383 11 Nil 4-545 3-434 Trace Averages. Feb. 27—March 25 3-399 0-0019 0-0000 1-587 0-0189 0-0486 March 27—Oct. 23 3-386 00023 00016 1-774 0-0274 01163 Nov. 7—Dec. 22 7-077 4-633 0-0034 0-0037 2-624 1-968 0-0295 01282 March 27—Dec. 22 7-077 3-650 0 0026 00020 2-624 1-815 0-0279 0-1188 Feb. 27—Dec. 22 7-077 3-622 0-0025 0 0018 2-624 1-789 0-0269 0-1108 38 Table 9.—Details op the Analytical Results obtained prom the Treatment op Crude Sewage by Rapid Sedimentation followed by Intermittent Treatment in a Coke-Bed. Date. Daily average rate of flow of the sewage through the channels. Feet per minute. Average daily samples of the sewage subjected to sedimentation, collected during 24 hours' flow. Average samples of the portion of ■edimented sewage subjected to coke-bed treatment. Oxygen absorbed from permanganate in four hours. By the total oxidisable matter in the sewage. By the dissolved oxidisable matter in the sewage. By the total oxidisable matter in sewage effluent after sedimentation. By the dissolved oxidisable matter in the sewage effluent after sedimentation. By the dissolved oxidisable mattei in the sewage effluent after sedimentation and before cokebed treatment. By the dissolved oxidisable matter in the effluent from the coke-bed. 1899. Dec. 24 ... 10-6 6-735 4 082 5-204 3-877 • •• ... 25 90 6-392 4-227 5-051 4-020 4-316 2-830 26 94 6-916 4-299 6074 4-392 3-720 2081 27 83 7-245 5-102 6-530 5-204 3-855 2081 28 11-5 8061 5-714 6-735 5612 4-400 2-000 29 12-8 8-989 5-555 7171 5-454 3-600 1-700 30 5-8 7938 3 093 6146 3-750 3-500 1-660 31 5-2 7-187 4-270 5-876 3195 • •• ... 1900. Jan. 1 ••• ... 99 7-083 4061 5-416 4166 2-963 1-394 2 71 6-562 3-646 5 833 3-750 3-708 1-650 3 63 7-745 4-705 6-372 4-705 5-106 2172 4 43 6019 3-883 4-174 3689 4-480 2059 5 4-8 6-956 5-326 6-521 5-000 4-736 2-020 6 51 6-333 3-888 5-333 4-000 3826 1-913 7 59 6-333 3-444 5444 3-777 ... 8 6-9 6-593 4-615 6-252 4-615 3-700 1-500 9 7-3 7-234 4-489 6-489 4042 2-800 1-300 10 65 7174 5-109 6087 5-217 3-333 1-616 11 63 6 739 4-782 6-087 5000 3-737 1-212 12 56 7-766 5-000 6-490 5-319 4-217 1-992 13 5-8 6-989 4-516 5-698 4-622 4-602 2-043 Average percentage purification 7-4 7095 4-467 5-952 161 co ^ o 3-922 12-2 1-846 58-7 on the crude sewage. 52-9 on the sedimented sewage. DIVISION II—BACTERIOLOGICAL. BY A. C. HOUSTON, M.B., D.Sc. CONTENTS. DIVISION II.—BACTERIOLOGICAL. I.—Summary of Contents of Previous Reports. 1. Summary of the Contents of the First Report. 2. Summary of the Contents of the Second Report. 3. Summary of the Contents of the Supplement to the Second Report. II.—The Experiments on Bacterial Treatment at Barking. 1. The Coke and Ragstone Beds. 2. The Double Coke-beds. III.—The Experiments on Bacterial Treatment at Crossness. 1. Further Experiments with the Effluents from the 4-foot, 6-foot (Primary) and 6-foot (Secondary) Coke-beds. 2. Experiments with the Effluents from the 13-foot Coke-bed at Crossness. IV.—Streptococci in the Barking and Crossness Crude Sewage and in the Effluents from the Bacterial Coke-beds. V.—Experiments on Animals. VI.—Final Conclusions. 1. General Conclusions. 2. Biological Conclusions. VII.—Addenda. 1. The Vitality of the Cholera Bacillus, B. Prodigiosus and Staphylococcus Pyogenes Aureus in Crossness Crude Sewage. 2. The Inoculation of the 13-foot Coke-bed at Crossness with a Special Sewage Microbe. 3. The Effect, as regards the Resultant Quality of the Effluent from the Bacterial Beds, of the addition of certain Chemical Substances to the Barking Crude Sewage. VIII.—Engfavings of Micro-photographs and Diagrammatic Drawings. 41 DIVISION IL-BACTERIOLQGrICAL. I—SUMMARY OF THE CONTENTS OF PREVIOUS REPORTS. 1.—SUMMARY OF THE CONTENTS OF THE FIRST REPORT.* In this Report a description of pome of the methods used in the bacteriological examination of sewage was given, and the results of the bacteriological examination of nine samples of Barking and six samples of Crossness crude sewage as regards the total number of bacteria, the number of spores of bacteria and the number of liquefying bacteria, and as regards the species of microorganisms present were expressed in the form of a table. Fourteen micro-photographs illustrating the work accompanied the Report. The chief results obtained may be stated as follows— 1 Description of the sample of crude sewage. 2 Total number of bacteria in 1 c.c. 3 Number of spores of bacteria in 1 c.c. 4 Number of liquefying bacteria in 1 c.c. 5 Number of B. coli (or closely allied forms; in 1 c.c. 6 No. of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes (Klein) in 1 c.c. Barking— Crude sewage (9 samples) 3,899,259 332 (excluding extreme results). 430,750 Usually more than 100,000 From 10 to 1,000 (usually more than 100). Crossness— Crude sewage (6 samples) 3,526,667 • 365 (excluding extreme results). 400,000 Usually more than 100,000 From 10 to 1,000 (usually more than 100). Although prior to the publication of this Report there were numerous records of the total number of micro-organisms in raw sewage, it is believed that there were few, if any, data dealing with the systematic examination of samples of crude sewage as regards the estimation of the number of aerobic bacteria present in the form of spores, the number of microbes causing liquefaction of gelatine, the number of B. coli and spores of the pathogenic B. enteritidis sporogenes. Such records were considered to be highly important as preparatory to a study of the effluents from biological coke-beds. Moreover these records have a special interest from the point of view of the bacterioscopic examination of drinking water. J Thus pure water rarely contains more than 100-200 bacteria per c.c. and very few, if any, spores in a similar quantity. As regards liquefying bacteria, these are present in considerable numbers even in very pure waters, but they are for the most part different in sort from those found in sewage.§ B. coli is not present, or only in small numbers in water free from any objectionable pollution, and the spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes are absent from as much, it may be, as 100 to 500 c.c. of a pure water. It is worthy of note that relatively to the total number of microbes, the number of spores of bacteria is jnuch greater in surface soils! than in sewage or in water. Further, that pure soils do not contain the spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes even inasmuch as 10 mgrms. of the soil, whereas impure soils may contain 10,000 per gramme. Lastly, B. coli appears to be absent from pure virgin soils and present, it may be, in considerable numbers in soils recently polluted. Although the estimation of the total number of micro-organisms, the number of spores of bacteria, and the number of liquefying germs was considered not unimportant, chief stress is to be laid on the enumeration of B. coli and spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes. B. coli is an organism characteristic of the intestinal discharge of animals, and especially abundant therein. Moreover, it may be pathogenic, although it can hardly be considered as a pathogenic microbe under ordinary conditions and in the usual acceptation of the term. Certainly, however, its presence serves as an index of the possible presence of other and perhaps dangerous bacteria of recent animal outcome. # The Report contained a record of the work done from February 23rd to May 9th, 1898. Filtration of sewage. Report on the bacteriological examination of London crude sewage. First Report. (P. S. King and Son, 2 and 4, Great Smith-street, Westminster, S.W.) J It is remarkable that notwithstanding the fact that sewage is the most common and most dangerous source of the pollution of drinking waters so little is known of the bacterial composition of sewage. § For example: in the Second Report a large number of experiments are given showing that in sewage and in the effluents from bacterial beds a gas-forming rapidly liquefying microbe described as " sewage proteui " is present in numbers usually exceeding 100,000 per c.c. This micro-organism was sometimes found to be very virulent. + Report of the Medical Officer, Local Government Board, 1897-8. [6] 42 As regards B. enteritidis sporogenes, this anaerobe is not only typical of excremental matters, but its cultures are extremely virulent to animals, and Dr. Klein's researches point to its being causally related to certain cases of acute diarrhcea in the human subject. There was a manifest advantage in choosing two micro-organisms—one an aerobe and the other an anaerobe, with the object of counting their numbers first in the crude sewage and afterwards in the effluent from bacterial coke-beds and B. coli and B. enteritidis sporogenes seemed to be microbes peculiarly well-fitted for the purpose. 2.—SUMMARY OF THE CONTENTS OF THE SECOND REPORT.* The Report is divided into a chemical and bacteriological division. DIVISION I.—CHEMICAL. Here Dr. Clowes deals with the chemical and practical side of the question under (1) objects of the coke-bed experiments; (2) general results obtained ; (3) general conclusions; (4) advantages of bacterial over chemical treatment; (5) construction and details of the coke-beds; (6) methods -of working the beds and their condition at the time of writing the Report ; (7) history of each cokebed; (8) experimental proof of the aeration of the coke-beds; (9) variation in the condition of the raw sewage, and its effect upon the effluent; (10) comparative purity of clear sewage, bacterial •effluent and chemical effluent. DIVISION II.—BACTERIOLOGICAL. It is this division of the Report which it is now proposed to summarise. It will be remembered that the First Report dealt with a period extending from the end of February to the beginning of May, 1898, and with the bacteriological examination of the raw sewage only—the bacterial coke-beds being at the period referred to in course of construction. The Second Report carried the enquiry a stage further, since it dealt with the bacteriological examination of the effluents from the bacterial coke-beds as well as of the raw sewage. The main portion of the Report treated of a period extending from May 9th to August 9th, 1898. But in the Addenda A, B, C, D, E, further bacteriological records were given, bringing the work up to the end of that year. The following summary takes note of the whole of the above period. As the descriptive matter in the Second Report dealt only with the period from May 9th to August 9th, 1898, and as the records contained in the Addenda A, B, C, D,E covered a large interval of time (August 9tli to December 31st, 1898) it will be necessary to collect all the figures together and to summarise the results as a whole. It is of advantage first to give the chief results! obtained in the form of tables and then to make certain comments thereon. But before doing so, it is desirable to state in a few sentences what the contents of the Second Report were. It will, of course, be impossible to summarise all the different sections, and for information under the headings not dealt with in the following pages reference must be made to the Report itself. CONTENTS OF SECOND REPORT. A.—Introduction. B.—Summary of Contents of First Report I.—The Biological Treatment of Sewage. II.—General Results obtained (May 9tii to August 9tii, 1898). III.—Summary of Results shewn in Table 1.—1. Total number of Bacteria. 2. Number of Spores of Bacteria. 3. Number of Liquefying Bacteria. 4. Species of Micro-Srganisms. (a) B. Enteritidis Sporogenes (Klein). (6) B. Coli Communis. (c) Other species of Bacteria. IV.—Tables and Diagrams dealing with the Results of the Bacteriological Examination of the Crude Sewage, of the Effluents from the Coke-beds ; and of the Effluent from the Chemical Precipitation Works, and of Samples of Thames Water. V.—Description of some of the Bacteria found in the Crude Sewage, and in the Effluents from the Coke-beds. 1. B. Coli Communis. 2. B. Mesentericus. (a) B. Mesentericus E. (b) B. Mesentericus I. 3. Sewage Proteus. 4. B. Frondosus. 5. B. Fusiformis. f>. B. Subtilissimus. 7. B. Subtilis. Sewage variety A. Sewage variety B. 8. B. Membraneus Patulus. 9. B. Capillareus. VI.—Description of Micro-piiotograpiis and Diagrammatic Drawings accompanying the Report. VII.—Addenda A, B, C, D, E.—Further Bacteriological Records (August 9th to December 31st, 1898.) * Bacterial treatment of crude sewage (Second Report.) Experimental intermittent treatment of London crude sewage in the coke-beds at Crossness. (P. S. King and Son, 2 and 4, Great Smith-street, Westminster, S.W.) The figures are not strictly comparable with those given in the First Report, because in order to obtain corresponding samples of the raw sewage and of the effluents from the coke-beds, a somewhat longer interval elapsed between the time of the collection of the samples of crude sewage and their subsequent examination than was the case during the earlier portion of the enquiry. 43 In the following pages the chief results as regards (1) total number of bacteria, (2) number of spores of bacteria, (3) number of liquefying bacteria, (4) number of B. coli, and (5) number of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes are tabulated and summarised. Eoth the records contained in the text of the Second Report and those given in the Addenda A, B, C, D, E, are here dealt with. The necessity of collecting these figures together, and making brief comments thereon, will make the summary less concise than it would otherwise have been. (a) Total Number of Bacteria in 1 c.c. Date. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from 4 ft. coke-bed. Effluent from 6 ft. primary coke-bed. Effluent from 6 ft. secondary coke-bed. Second Report, Addendum A. Second Report, page 21 1898. 1 May 11 3,930,000 4,800,000 ... !8 3,670,000 4,100,000 25 6.400,000 6,100,000 June 9 6,500,000 1,200,000 15 4,000,000 5,300,000 22 9,100,000 3,000,000 July 20 12,800,000 9,200,000 27 7,200,000 • • • 6,600,000 ... August 4 4,200.000 1,800,000 9 3,600,000 ... 1,700,000 19 5,800,000 3,400,000 ... ... 24 4,100,000 ... 5,700,000 September 14 8,000,000 3,400,000 ... 21 8,600,000 ... 7,200,000 28 7,500,000 7,500,000 ... October 5 10,500,000 • • • 8,000,000 ... 12 4,000,000 4,200,000 21 8,000,000 ... 15,800,000 26 5,200,000 ... 3,100,000 November 9 7,800,000 8,800,000 ... 16 5,800,000 ... 5,300,000 ... 23 8,600,000 .., ... 4,500,000 30 13,500,000 5,400,000 ... December 7 5,600,000 ... ' 4,000,000 ... 14 19,500,000 ... ... 5,300,000 21 7,400,000 6,300,000 ... ... Averages ... 7,357,692 (26 samples) 4,966,666 (15 samples) 6,787,500 (8 samples) 4,300,000 (3 samples) Percentage reduct ion (as compared with the raw sewage). 32 per cent. 7 per cent. 41 per cent. Average number of bacteria in the raw sewage when the samples were comparative with the samples obtained respectively from the 4 ft., 6 ft. (primary), and 6 ft. (secondary) coke-beds. ✓ * 6,973,333 j (15 samples cor- ( responding to ( 4 ft. samples. ) 4,966,666 28 per cent, reduction. 6,675,000 ) (8 samples corresponding to > 6 ft. primary I samples.) ... ( 6,787,500 ( slight increase. 11,100,000 \ (3 samples cor- 1 responding to > 6 ft. secondary 4 samples.) / ... ... r 4,300,000 < 61 per cent. (. reduction. The table shows that the total number of bacteria in the crude sewage (26 samples), the effluent from the 4-foot coke-bed (15 samples), the effluent from the G-foot primary coke-bed (8 samples), and the effluent from the 6-foot secondary coke-bed (3 samples) averaged 7,357,692, 4,966,666, 6,787,500, and 4,300,000 per c.c. respectively. The percentage reduction of bacteria in the effluents being 32, 7, and 41. The average number of bacteria in the 15 samples of crude sewage corresponding to the 4-foot coke-bed effluents was 6,973,333. In the eight samples corresponding to the 6-foot primary coke-bed effluents the average was 6,675,000. Lastly, the three samples of crude sewage corresponding to the 6-foot secondary coke-bed effluents yielded on an average 11,100,000 bacteria per c.c. Calculated from these figures, the percentage reduction of bacteria was 28 as regards the 4-foot coke-bed effluents; no reduction, but a slight increase as regards the 6-foot primary coke-bed effluents, and 61 per cent, in respect of the 6-foot secondary coke-bed effluents. As a rule a rise or fall above or below the mean in the number of bacteria in the crude sewage was associated with a similar increase or decrease of microbes in the corresponding effluents. Thus, as regards the crude sewage and 4-foot coke-bed effluents, there was a correspondence in this respect on 11 occasions out of 15; and as regards the raw sewage and 6-foot primary coke-bed effluents this correspondence was observed in all the eight samples. The records 44 of the examination of the 6-foot secondary coke-bed effluents are too few in number to allow of useful conclusions being drawn, but here also the same agreement occurred. The above must not be taken as meaning that the percentage deviation from the mean showed any parallelism as regards the crude sewage and corresponding effluents. So far as a diminution in the number of bacteria may be taken as an indication of purification, it must be admitted that the above results are not satisfactory. And if they are unfavourable from the point of view of percentage reduction effected, still less are they favourable when judged by the actual state of the effluents. It is noteworthy that the reduction in the number of bacteria was much greater in the effluent from the 4-foot coke-bed than in the effluent from the 6-foot primary coke-bed, and was nearly as much as in the effluent from the 6-foot secondary coke-bed. Possibly the records as regards the 6-foot primary coke-bed indicate a retrogade change. Since the coke-beds are intended to encourage the life processes of bacteria it might be urged that an increase, or, at all events, the absence of a marked decrease in the number of bacteria in the effluents is of little importance. Further, that it may even be a desirable thing that an effluent only partially purified should carry with it the bacteria which have been engaged in the work of purification in order to complete their work. There may be truth in these contentions, but as experience has shown that the bacterial beds which yield the best chemical results yield also the best results bacteriologically, and as river water already contains all the necessary germs of putrefaction and nitrification, it would seem to be undesirable to discharge with an effluent countless germs of a kind to be associated with the recent evacuations of animals. Moreover, some of these micro-organisms are pathogenic, and doubtless many of them, although perhaps slowly working in the direction of purification, are, in a sense, intruders, since the work could probably be more efficiently carried out in their absence by other and unobjectionable bacteria. As regards the value to be assigned to the estimation of the total number of microbes, it mav be said that the greater the number of micro-organisms in a liquid containing a mixed bacterial flora the more likely is it that some of them are of a harmful nature. But further than this, the prolonged investigations carried out in this enquiry as regards the species of microbes and their relative numbers give to the above figures a special and peculiar value. For while there is no fixed proportion between the total number of bacteria, and, for example, the number of proteuslike germs, of B. coli and of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes, it has been abundantly shown that with a sample of effluent or raw seivage, containing an average number of microbes, say three to nine millions per c.c., the number of " sewage proteus " of B. coli and of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes is likely to be not less than 100,000 ; at least 100,000, and usually more than 100 respectively. Further, that more than one-tenth of the bacteria are likely to be " liquefiers," and only about one in 20,000 present as spores (aerobes). As the bacterial composition of London crude sewage does not differ widely from the raw sewage of most other towns, if is believed that these records have a wide range of usefulness At the risk of repetition it may be pointed out that their bearing on the bacterioscopic examination of potable waters is very important. (h) Number of Spores of Aerobic Bacteria in 1 c.c. Date. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from 4 ft. coke-bed. Effluent from 6 ft. primary coke-bed. Effluent from 6 ft. secondary coke - bed. Second Report, Addendum C.| Second Report, page 22.; / 1898 May 11 460 260 ... 18 300 140 25 370 380. June 9 560 230 15 180 300 ... 22 310 60 • •• July 20 400 430 27 870 480 August > 4 280 220 9 340 300 19 220 200 24 170 180 September 14 # * ... 21 250 190 28 260 490 October 5 200 130 ... 12 320 240 ... 21 340 420 26 200 220 November 9 150 140 ... 16 240 • •• 180 23 510 320 30 440 310 ... December 7 70 170 14 800 ... 420 21 270 140 ... Averages ... 340 (25 samples.) 252 (14 samples). 256 (8 samples). 320 (3 samples). Percentage reduct ion (as compared with the raw sewage). 25 per cent. 24 per cent. 5 per cent. # The rapid liquefaction of the gelatine prevented accurate counting. 45 (b) Number of Spokes of Aerobic Bacteria in 1 c.c.—continued. Date. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from 4-ft. coke-bed. Effluent from 6 ft. primary coke-bed. Effluent from 6 ft. secondary coke-bed. Average number of spores of bacteria in the raw sewage where the samples were comparative with the samples obtained respectively from the 4 ft., 6 ft. (primary), and 6 ft. (secondary) coke-beds. / ^ - > 322 (14 samples, corresponding to 4ft. samples). \ 252 ^ 21 per cent. \ reduction. 310 (8 samples corresponding to 6 ft. primary samples) } J •" r 256 1 17 per cent. ^ reduction. 503 (3 samples corresponding to 6 ft. secondary samples). l " ... , 320 < 36 per cent. / reduction. The table shows that the number of spores of bacteria in the crude sewage (25 samples), the effluent from the 4-foot coke-bed (14 samples), the effluent from the G-foot primary coke-bed (8 samples), and the effluent from the G-foot secondary coke-bed (3 samples), averaged 340, 252, 256, and 320 per c.c. respectively. The percentage reduction in the effluents as compared with the crude sewage being 25, 24, and 5. The average number of spores in the 14 samples of crude sewage corresponding to the 4-foot coke-bed effluents was 322; in the 8 samples corresponding to the 6-foot primary coke-bed effluents, 310; and in the 3 samples corresponding to the 6-foot secondary coke-bed effluent the average was 503. Calculated from these figures the percentage reduction in the number of spores of bacteria was 21 as regards the 4-foot coke-bed effluents, 17 as regards the 6-foot primary coke-bed effluents, and 36 in respect of the 6-foot secondary coke-bed effluents. Usually a rise or fall above or below the mean in the number of spores of bacteria in the raw sewage was associated with a similar increase or decrease in the number in the corresponding effluents. Thus as regards the crude sewage and 4-foot coke-bed effluents there was in this respect a relation between the two in 11 out of 14 samples; and the raw sewage and 6-foot primary coke-bed effluents showed a similar correspondence in six out of eight comparative samples. The same relationship was noticed with reference to the 6-foot secondary coke-bed effluents, but here only three samples were examined. So far as may be judged from a rise or fall above or below the mean the figures show no distinct parallelism between the total number of bacteria and the number of spores of bacteria in the case either of the crude sewage or of the effluents from the 6-foot primary coke-bed. But as regards the 4-foot coke-bed effluents there is evidence of a distinct relation. It will be understood that in the above remarks, when mention is made of a relationship, it does not imply a parallelism as regards percentage deviation from the mean. In the Second Report it was shewn that the percentage reduction in the number of bacteria and the number of spores of bacteria in the 4-foot coke-bed effluent as compared with the crude sewage was 27'7 and 38 respectively. Here and when dealing with a larger number of records, i.e., including those given in Addenda A and C, as well as those contained in the body of the Report, the figures are slightly different, being in the first case 32 per cent, and in the second 25 per cent. It is difficult to gauge the exact significance of the number of spores of aerobic bacteria and the number relative to the total number of bacteria. Spores of bacteria are peculiarly resistant to unfavourable physical conditions; fortunately, however, the majority, at all events, of the spores of aerobic micro-organisms found in sewage belong to species which are believed to be harmless. AH hough the actual number of spores in sewage* is large, the number relative to the total number of bacteria is very small. Thus in the 26 samples above recorded for every microbe present in the spore-form there were present over 21,000 in the vegetative-form. And this result is not in all probability to be traced solely to the comparative infrequency of bacteria in sewage capable of forming spores, but also to the active and continued multiplication of the microorganisms in the presence of an abundance of suitable pabulum. In the case of effluents from bacterial beds it is conceivable that a smaller reduction in the number of spores of bacteria as compared with the reduction in the total number of bacteria, or an actual increase in the number of spores in the effluent as compared with the crude sewage might be a good rather than a bad sign as indicating that the organic pabulum was becoming exhausted and the conditions for bacterial life so unfavourable as to lead the microbes to form snores so as to escape extinction. In mv reports to the Local Government Board on the bacteriological examination of soils I have shewn that in surface soils not only is the number of spores very large, but also that they are very numerous in relation to the total number of bacteria. Thus in soils it is common to find the ratio between the number of spores and number of bacteria—1:2;1:8;1:4;1:5;1:6;1:7; 1: 8; 1: 9 and 1: 10. Sometimes the ratio may be 1: 20 ; 1: 30; 1: 40, or lower, but here the 46 cause is usually to be found in the presence of an excess of moisture and also of organic pabulum. Although the number of bacteria capable of forming spores in soils is peculiarly great, it is probable that the majority of these form spores only when there is a deficiency in the amount of liquid organic pabulum and when the physical conditions are unfavourable. It is, perhaps, permissible to hazard the conjecture that an increase (actual or relative) in the number of spores of bacteria in effluents from bacterial beds is possibly a favourable sign. Yet surmises such as the above are best received with caution, especially as they are to some extent founded on a comparison between a liquid (sewage) in the one case and a solid (soil) in the other. Certainly, however, it is a point worth noting that in soils the ratio of spores to bacteria is commonly more than 1: 10 and in sewage less than 1: 10,000. Waters, it may be added, differ rather widely in this respect, but they always approximate much more closely to the ratio found in sewage than to that found in soil. (c) Number of Bacteria causing Liquefaction of Gelatine in 1 c.c. Date. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from 4 ft. coke-bed. Effluent from 6 ft. primary coke-bed. Effluent from 6 ft secondary coke-bed. 1898. co <n © be ce 1 Ph 1 o ) A 1 a ■s 1 § & A a> TD U o Q* <d PH c o o © May 11 400,000 1,300,000 ... 18 100,000 700,000 ... 25 900,000 700,000 ... June 9 1,400,000 200,000 ... 15 800,000 1,100,000 ... 22 900,000 600,000 ... July 20 1,700,000 1,000,000 ... 27 900,000 ... 300,000 ... August 4 400,000 500,000 ... ... 9 1,100,000 200,000 ... 19 600,000 400,000 24 600,000 1,100,000 ... September 14 700,000 700,000 21 1,200,000 1,100,000 28 1,200,000 1,200,000 October 5 2,400,000 600,000 ... 12 700,000 1,200,000 ... 21 1,000,000 ... 1,000,000 ... 26 700,000 ... 500,000 November 9 1,900,000 1,400,000 ... 16 1,600,000 ... 1,500,000 ... 23 900,000 ... ... 400,000 30 900,000 500,000 ... December 7 1,400,000 ... 900,000 14 1,400,000 ... ... 1,600,000 21 2,200,000 600,000 ... ... Averages... 1,076,923 (26 samples) 806,666 (15 samples) 837,500 (8 samples) 833,333 (3 samples) Percentage reduct ion (as compared with the raw sewage) 25 per cent. 22 per cent. 22 per cent. be ® 1 A ® -4^ / 5 | ® m J5 6 r3 0 " 8 &. o P . s a-e " 5 p cs . s 0) ^ g <0 ^ o v O o i CJ « -12 P, *0 |.a s a 6 I 2 '■§ 'S ® § g-§,§ s.SiS s ® J t < I 986,666 -) (15 samples cor- [ responding to ( 4 ft. samples) J 806,666 18 per cent, reduction 1,275,000 \ (8 samples cor- 1 responding to > 6 ft. primary I samples) C 837,500 ■; 34 per cent. ( reduction 1,000,000 \ (3 samples cor- I responding to > 6 ft. secondary I samples) ] ( 833,333 < 16 per cent. (. reduction The table shows that the number of liquefying bacteria in the crude sewage (26 samples), the effluent from the 4-foot coke-bed (15 samples), the effluent from the 6-foot primary coke-bed (8 samples), and the effluent from the 6-foot secondary coke-bed (3 samples) averaged 1,076,923, 806,666, 837,500, and 833,333 per c.c. respectively. The percentage reduction in the number of liquefying bacteria in the effluents being respectively 25, 22, and 22. The average number of liquefying bacteria in the 15 samples of crude sewage corresponding to the 4-foot coke-bed effluents was 986,666. In the 8 samples corresponding to the 6-foot primary coke-bed effluents 47 the average was 1,275,000, and in the 3 samples corresponding to the 6-foot secondary coke-bed effluents 1,000,000. Calculated from these figures the percentage reduction of liquefying bacteria was 18 as regards the 4-foot coke-bed effluents, 34 in respect of the 6-foot primary coke-bed effluents, and 16 as regards the 6-foot secondary coke-bed effluents. Usually a rise or fall above or below the mean in the number of liquefying bacteria in the crude sewage was associated with a similar increase or decrease in the number in the corresponding effluents. Thus as regards the crude sewage and 4-foot coke-bed effluents, in 10 out of the 15 experiments there was a correspondence, and in the case of the 6-foot primary coke-bed effluents, 4 out of the 8 samples corresponding to the crude sewage showed a similar relationship. Only 3 samples of the effluent from the 6-foot secondary coke-bed were examined; these in each case were related to the raw sewage in the above sense. So far as may be judged from a rise or fall above or below the mean, the figures show a certain parallelism between the total number of bacteria in the crude sewage and the number of liquefying bacteria, and lastly between the number of spores and liquefiers. As regards the 4-foot coke-bed effluents there is evidence of a distinct relation between the total number of bacteria and spores of bacteria, the total number of bacteria and the number of liquefying bacteria, but little or none between the number of spores and number of liquefiers. With respect to the 6-foot primary coke-bed effluents there is no definite correspondence between the total number of bacteria and either the number of spores of bacteria or the number of liquefiers; and the spores and liquefiers show, if anything, an inverse relation. It is to be noted that the number of liquefying bacteria was less in the effluents from the 4-foot coke-bed than in the effluents either from the 6-foot primary or 6-foot secondary coke-beds. The exact value to be placed on the determination of the number of liquefying bacteria is difficult to judge of. At one time it was thought that the greater the number of liquefying bacteria in a water the more dangerous was the nature of the contamination, and the more unfit the water was for domestic use. But as many objectionable bacteria (e.g., B. coli) do not liquefy gelatine and many pure waters are rich in liquefying microbes of a harmless nature, this test fell into comparative disfavour. When, however, the character of the liquefying bacteria in the substance under examination is taken into consideration, the position of things is somewhat altered. Thus in 14 samples of crude sewage and effluents there were present at least 100,000 gas-forming "sewage proteus"* per c.c. So that it may safely be said that at least one-tenth of the numerous liquefying bacteria in sewage are proteus-like in character. And as some of the strains of this "sewage proteus" isolated from the raw sewage and the effluents were found to be very virulent, it may be added that crude sewage and effluents from bacterial coke-beds are not only rich in liquefying bacteria, but that they contain liquefying germs in great abundance which are very objectionable in kind. In conclusion it is worthy of note that the ratios of spores and of liquefiers to the total number of bacteria in the crude sewage and effluents are as follows— Crude sewage (26 samples)—Ratio of spores (aerobes) to total number of bacteria = 1 : 21,640 4-foot coke-bed effluent (15 samples)—Ratio of spores (aerobes) to total number of bacteria = 1 : 19,709 6-foot primary coke-bed effluent (8 samples)—Ratio of spores (aerobes) to total number of bacteria = 1 : 26,513 6-foot secondary coke-bed effluent (3 samples)—Ratio of spores (aerobes) to total number of bacteria = 1 : 13,436 Crude sewage (26 samples)—Ratio of liquefiers to total number of bacteria = 1 : 6'8 4-foot coke-bed effluent (15 samples)—Ratio of liquefiers to total number of bacteria = 1 : 6-l 6-i'oot primary coke-bed effluent (8 samples)—Ratio of liquefiers to total number of bacteria = 1 : 8*1 6-foot secondary coke-bed effluent (3 samples)—Ratio of liquefiers to total number of bacteria = 1 : 5*1 These results would seem to indicate that the result of the bacterial treatment of the raw sewage in the coke-beds was to effect an increase in the number of spores and of liquefiers relative to the total number of micro-organisms in the case of the 4-foot and 6-foot secondary beds and to bring about a decrease in the number of spores and liquefiers relative to the total number in the case of the 6-foot primary coke-bed. In the Second Report it was stated that the percentage reduction of spores was greater than the reduction of the total number of micro-organisms in the 4-foot coke-bed effluent as compared with the crude sewage. The figures, however, dealt only with the period extending from May 9th to August 9th, whereas the above records include as well hose given in Addenda to the Second Report—i.e., the results obtained between August 9th to December 31st, 1898. * This micro-organism is fully described in Section V., Division II., of Second Report. 48 (d) Number of B. Coli or Closely Allied Forms in 1 c.c. Date. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from 4 ft. coke-bed. Effluent from 6 ft. (primary) coke-bed. Effluent from 6 ft. (secondary) coke-bed. 1898. Second Report, Addendum D. Second Report, page 26 May 11 None in O'OOOOl c.c. 200,000 ... ... 18 300,000 200,000 ... ... 25 1,500,000 700,000 ... ... June 9 200,000 100,000 ... ... 15 300,000 600,000 ... ... 22 300,000 300,000 ... ... July 20 300,000 300,000 ... ... 27 500.000 ... 600,000 ... August 4 200,000 300,000 ... ... 9 1,000,000 ... 200,000 ... 19 100,000 None in 0.00001 c.c. ... ... 24 300,000 ... 400,000 ... September 14 600.000 400,000 ... ... 21 1,600,000 ... 700,000 ... 28 1,000,000 900,000 ... ... October 5 1,200,000 ... 1,300,000 ... 12 800,000 500,000 ... ... 21 800,000 ... 800,000 ... 26 None in 0.00001 c.c. ... ... None in 0.00001 c.c. November 9 400,000 400,000 ... ... 16 300,000 500,000 ... 23 600,000 ... 100,000 30 600,000 200,000 ... ... December 7 400,000 ... 200,000 ... 14 400,000 ... 100,000 21 500,000 600,000 ... ... Averages (in round numbers) 600,000 (24 samples) 400,000 (14 samples) 600,000 (8 samples) 100,000 (2 samples) Percentage reduct ion (as compared with the raw sewage). 33 per cent. No reduction. 83 per cent. Average number of B. coli in the raw sewage where the sample corresponded with the samples obtained respectively from the 4 ft., 6 ft. (primary), and 6 ft. (secondary) cokebed. 538,000 (13 samples corresponding to 4 ft. samples.) 400,000 25 per cent. reduction. 762,000 (8 samples corresponding to 6 ft. primary samples.) ... ... 600,000 21 per cent. reduction. 500,000 (2 samples corresponding to 6 ft. secondary samples.) ... ... ... ... 100,000 80 per cent. reduction. The table shows that the number of B. coli in the crude sewage (24 samples), the effluent from the 4-foot coke-bed (14 samples), the effluent from the G-foot primary coke-bed (8 samples), and the effluent from the G-foot secondary coke-bed (2 samples) averaged 600,000, 400,000, 600,000 and 100,000 per c.c. respectively. The percentage reduction in the effluents as compared with the crude sewage being 33, no reduction, and 83. The average number of B. coli in the 13 samples of crude sewage corresponding to the 4-foot coke-bed effluent was 538,000; in the 8 samples corresponding to the 6-foot primary coke-bed effluents 762,000; and in the 2 samples corresponding to the 6-foot secondary coke-bed effluents the average was 500,000. Based on these figures the percentage reduction in the number of B. coli was 25 as regards the 4-foot coke-bed effluents, 21 as regards the 6-foot primary coke-bed effluents, and 80 in respect of the 6-foot secondary coke-bed effluents. Usually a rise or fall above or below the mean in the number of B. coli in the crude sewage was associated with a similar increase or decrease in the number in the corresponding effluents. Thus as regards the crude sewage and 4-foot coke-bed effluents there was in this respect a correspondence between the two in 10 out of 12 samples; and the raw sewage and 6-foot primary cokebed effluents showed a similar relation in 6 out of the 7 comparative samples. The records as regards the 6-foot secondary coke-bed effluents are too few in number to warrant a comparison being made. So far as may be judged from a rise or fall above or below the mean the figures show a certain parallelism between the number of B. coli and the total number of bacteria both in the crude sewage and in the effluents from the 4-foot and 6-foot primary coke-beds. The records as regards the 6-foot secondary coke-bed are too few to allow of useful conclusions being drawn. It is to be noted that the average number of B. coli in the 6-foot primary coke-bed effluent 49 was greater than the number in the 4-foot coke-bed effluent, and, indeed, showed no difference from the raw sewage in this respect. The ratio of the number of B. coli to the total number of bacteria in the crude sewage and in the effluents is approximately as follows— Crude sewage (26 samples)—Ratio of B. coli to total number of bacteria = 1:12 4-foot coke-bed effluent (15 samples)—Ratio of B. coli to total number of bacteria = 1 : 12 6-foot primary coke-bed effluent (8 samples)—Ratio of B. coli to total number of bacteria = 1 : 11 6-foot secondary coke-bed effluent (3 samples)—Ratio of B. coli to total number of bacteria = 1 :43 These results would seem to indicate that the result of the bacterial treatment of the raw sewage in the coke-beds was to effect no material alteration in the number of B. coli relative to the total number of bacteria in the case of the 4-foot and 6-foot primary coke-beds and to bring about a decrease in the case of the 6-foot secondary coke-bed. In the latter case, however, only 3 samples were examined. (e) Number of Sports of B. Enteritidis Sporogenes in 1 c.c. Date. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from 4-ft. coke-bed. Effluent from 6 ft. primary coke-bed. Effluent from 6 ft. coke-bed again passed through the laboratory vessel at Crossness. Effluent from 6 ft. secondary coke-bed. 1898. Second Report, pages 24 and 25. May 11 at least 10 but less than 100 at least 100 but less than 1,000 18 at least 1,000 at least 100 but less than 1,000 25 at least 100 but less than 1,000 at least 1,000 June 9 at least 100 at least 100 15 at least 10 at least 10 22 at least 1,000 at least 10 but less than 100 July 6 at least 10 but less than 100 at least 10 but less than 100 20 at least 100 but less than 1,000 at least 100 but less than 1,000 at least 100 at least 100 27 at least 100 at least 100 but less than 1,000 at least 100 at least 10 but less than 100 Aug. 4 at least 100 at least 100 at least 10 at least 10 9 at least 10 but less than 100 at least 100 at least 100 at least 10 but less than 100 Second Report, Addendum E. 19 at least 100 at least 100 at least 10 at least 10 24 at least 100 but less than 1,000 at least 100 at least 100 but less than 1,000 at least 10 but less than 100 Sept. 14 at least 1,000 at least 100 but less than 1,000 at least 10 but less than 100 effluent from 6 ft. primary cokebed now turned on to 6 ft. secondary cokebed at least 100 21 at least 1,000 at least 100 at least 100 but less than 1,000 ,, at least 100 28 at least 100 but less than 1,000 at least 100 but less than 1,000 at least 100 ,, at least 100 Oct. 5 at least 100 but less than 1,000 at least 100 at least 100 but less than 1,000 ,, at least 100 12 at least 1,000 at least 1,000 at least 100 ,, at least 10 but less than 100 21 at least 100 but less than 1,000 at least 100 at least 100 but less than 1,000 ,, at least 100 26 at least 100 but less than 1,000 less than 10 at least 100 ,, at least 1,000 Nov. 2 at least 10 at least 10 at least 10 ,, at least 10 9 at least 1,000 at least 1,000 at least 100 ,, at least 100 16 at least 1,000 at least 100 at least 100 but less than 1,000 ,, at least 10 but less than 100 23 at least 1,000 at least 100 at least 100 ,, at least 100 but less than 1,000 30 at least 1,000 at least 100 but less than 1,000 at least 100 ,, at least 100 Dec. 7 at least 10 but less than 100 at least 100 at least 100 but less than 1,000 ,, at least 10 but less than 100 14 at least 100 but less than 1,000 at least 10 and ? 100 at least 10 and ? 100 ,, at least 100 but less than 1,000 21 at least 1,000 at least 1,000 ? 10, less than 100 ,, ? 10, less than 100 [7] 50 In summarising these results it is to be noted that— (1) The number of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes in the crude sewage and effluents varied as a rule from 10 to 1,000 per c.c. Usually there were more than 100. (2) The bacterial treatment did not produce any significant alteration in the number of spores of this pathogenic anaerobe, and sometimes the number was greater in the effluents than in the corresponding samples of crude sewage. Possibly this may be due to the spores being stored in the coke-beds and being occasionally washed out. This supposition may also explain the observed fact that sometimes the number of spores of aerobic bacteria in the effluents was greater than in the corresponding sample of sewage. Speaking generally, and dealing only with the experiments where the samples of raw sewage and effluent corresponded, and where the absence of B. enteritidis was established in an amount of liquid one-tenth less than the quantity in which it was found to be present, it may be said that the number of spores of enteritidis was more often observed to be less in the effluents as compared with the corresponding sample of crude sewage than vice versa. In view of these results, and remembering the virulence of this microbe and its probable relation to certain cases of acute diarrhoea in the human subject, it is remarkable that some bacteriologists still assert that the effluents from bacterial beds are free from pathogenic germs. Another point on which some misconception is evident is the belief that because B. enteritidis sporogenes may be present in normal stools its presence in an effluent or in a water supply is of no moment. Passing over the fact that its numbers in normal stools are small when compared with the great numbers which are found in the excreta of patients suffering from acute diarrhoea, it is as idle to assert that because it may be present in normal stools its presence in an effluent or a water-supply is of no importance, as it would be to say that because diplococcus pneumoniæ (one of the most pathogenic micro-organisms known) may be present in normal human saliva, its presence elsewhere in nature is not fraught with any untoward significance. Moreover, it would seem to be the case that although the spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes may be found in the large intestine they are usually absent from the small intestine, except in cases of acute diarrhoea, when they are present in great abundance. In the First Report a micro-photograph* is given showing the appearances produced in sterile milk when inoculated with a minimal quantity of sewage and thereafter heated to 80 °C for ten minutes and cultivated anaë robically at blood-heat. Briefly, the casein is precipitated and torn into irregular masses by the copious development of gas, and the whey presents a nearly transparent or slightly cloudy appearance. Now, even if we forget that these characteristic changes in the milk are microbial in origin, and discard altogether the question of the pathogenicity of the micro-organisms concerned in the process, and regard the change in the medium merely as a special phenomenon to be associated with the introduction of certain substances as opposed to others, the test still remains one of extreme value. For the particulate matter in as much as from 100 to 500 c.c. of a pure water does not in point of fact produce these changes when added to milk, whereas the addition of as little as to c.c. of sewage does do so. Nor do we know of any substance which is not objectionable in character or which has not been associated at some time with matter of undesirable sort which can effect a similar transformation in milk. The only possible objection that can be urged against the test is that the fact of B. enteritidis sporogenes being a sporing anaerobe weakens somewhat its usefulness as an indication of recent and therefore presumably specially dangerous pollution. Of course such a contention has little or no bearing on the experiments carried out in this inquiry. It will be noted that the spores of B. enteritidis often exceeded in number the total number of spores of aerobic bacteria. The reason for this probably lies in the fact of B. enteritidis being an anaerobe. In nature anaerobic micro-organisms are usually found to be present in the sporeform, because doubtless it is but seldom that the conditions are favourable for their anaerobic growth, and if they were not capable of forming spores under adverse circumstances they might soon lose their vitality and die. Aerobic bacteria, on the other hand, commonly find in nature the conditions favourable for their continued growth and multiplication, and so are usually met with in the vegetative form. In surface soil, however, as has been already pointed out, the ratio of spores to bacteria is very high, because the physical conditions are frequently most unfavourable to microbial life. On comparing the figures as regards the total number of bacteria and number of spores of B. enteritidis no definite correspondence can be made out between the two sets of figures either in the case of the crude sewage or in the effluents. In not a few cases when the total number of bacteria was large the number of spores of B. enteritidis was small and vice versa. It might perhaps have been anticipated that both in the ease of the crude sewage and in the effluents there would be some measure of correspondence between the number of B. coli and the number of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes. On comparing the two sets of figures it would seem that this is not the case; indeed, if there is any relation at all it is an inverse one. Thus dealing in the first place with the crude sewage only it will be noted that— On ten different occasions the number of spores of B. enteritidis was very high, viz., at least 1,000 per c.c. On the corresponding dates the number of B. coli was five times below the average, only twice above, and on three occasions there were present the average number. Taking next the five samples in which B. coli was present in great numbers, namely, 1.000,000 or more per c.c. In the corresponding samples the number of spores of B. enteritidis was about the average three times, less than the average once, and above the average once. Taking next three samples in which B. enteritidis was present in small numbers, namelv, at least 10 but less than 100 per c.c. On one of these dates B. coli was present in numbers exceeding one million per c.c., and in the two other samples B. coli was below the average. * Fig. 14—Filtration of Sewage—First Report. 51 Next dealing with the ten samples in which B. coli was distinctly below the average, namely, those in which the number was 300,000 or less per c.c. In three of these samples the number of spores of B. enteritidis was over 1,000, five times the number was an average one, and in the remaining two the number was below the average. Secondly, dealing with the effluents from the 4-foot coke-bed, a similar although perhaps less well marked want of correspondence between the number of B. coli and B. enteritidis is noticeable. The records as regards the other coke-bed effluents are not very numerous and do not lend themselves readily to comparisons of the above sort. In general summary of these results it may be said that— (1) Although the total number of bacteria, the number of spores of aerobic microbes, the number of liquefying micro-organisms, the number of B. coli. and the number of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes was, on an average, less in the effluents from the cokebeds than in the raw sewage, the reduction was not well marked, and frequently the number was actually greater in the effluents than in the corresponding samples of crude sewage. (2) The 4-foot coke-bed yielded on the whole better results than the 6-foot primary and proved nearly as efficient as the 6-foot secondary coke-bed. (3) There was no very definite evidence, so far as may be judged from these results, of any special selective* process being effected by the bacterial treatment of the sewage in the coke-beds, since the bacterial composition of the effluents was very much the same as that of the raw sewage. (4) The number of microbes, both in the crude sewage and effluents, was always more than one million, but usually less than ten million per c.c.; the number of B. coli and spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes was usually more than 100,000, and at least 100, but less than 1,000, respectively, per c.c. More than one-tenth of the bacteria liquefied gelatine, and only about one in 20,000 was present in the spore form. (5) As the bacterial composition of the effluents differed only slightly from the crude sewage, so far as this could be judged of by the records which have been enumerated, it cannot, in the absence of direct proof to the contrary, be safely considered that the effluents from the coke-beds are less dangerous than the raw sewage in their possible relation to disease. It must, however, be remembered that in the present case there are practical points which first of all demand consideration. In this connexion it will not be out of place to quote from page 21 of the Second Report. Thus in dealing with the general results obtained at Crossness it was said—"It must be admitted that the above results are not satisfactory from the bacteriological point of view, particularly when it is remembered that an effluent ought to be judged, not only by the percentage amount of purification effected, but also by the actual state it is in. Yet it is to be considered that these results assume a different complexion when viewed side by side with the chemical data. "It has been shown in Division I. of this Report that the percentage purification, as judged from the dissolved oxidisable matter removed by the treatment, was on an average 50 per cent., and that the suspended matter was entirely removed. It has been stated that the results thus obtained surpass considerably those yielded by chemical treatment and appear to justify the claims put forward bv the supporters of the biological treatment of sewage, especially since, so far as can be seen, no nuisance or danger arises as a result of the treatment. "In the body of the Report a number of reasons are given, showing that it is unwise in the present state of our knowledge to recklessly condemn an effluent on bacteriological ground alone, without full knowledge of all the requirements of the case. In the attempt to treat sewage on biological lines it is to be noted that the solution of the suspended matter and even the considerable destruction of putrescible matters by microbial agencies afford sufficient ground for justifying the process, at all events as a preliminary measure. "Whether this preliminary treatment is to be supplemented by further treatment, either by passage through other coke-beds, or by land irrigation or by any other method, is a matter largely dependent on circumstances. "In the present case there are practical points which first of all demand consideration, and although it may be most desirable to obtain an effluent chemically pure and bacteriologically above suspicion of danger it is to be thought of that an effluent not altogether satisfactory in one or other, or even in both, of these respects may yet fulfil all necessary requirements without passing, out of the range of practicability. In certain cases it may be imperative to obtain an effluent bacteriologically sound, but it does not follow that a similar result is urgently called for in other cases, as, for example, where an effluent is turned into a watercourse which is not used for drinking purposes, and which already may contain practically all the bacteria that are found in sewage. "It might reasonably be argued that where an effluent is turned into a river already grossly polluted and below the lowest level of "intake" for waterworks purposes, the chemical state of such effluent was (from the practical point of view, at all events) of possibly even greater importance than the bacteriological. Some such state of things pertains in the case of London sewage and the river Thames. Here the initial consideration is to avoid fouling the river with * That, however, some selective process is at work in the coke-beds need hardly be doubted. For example, raw sewage contains little or no oxidised nitrogen, whereas the effluents from bacterial beds contain nitrites, and nitrates often in considerable amount. This alteration in the chemical state of the liquid is brought about by nitrifying bacteria, and it is highly probable that these particular microbes multiply and accumulate in the coke-beds, and that the effluents from mature coke-beds contain more nitrifying organisms than the crude sewage. Some experiments of a tentative character which I have carried out seem to support this hypothesis. 52 putrescible matters to such an extent as to constitute a grave public nuisance. From this point of view it is evident that an effluent rich in putrescible matter is not permissible, but it is not as certain that an effluent rich in bacteria is equally to be condemned on practical grounds." Methods.—For a description of the various methods employed the Report itself must be consulted (pages 22, 23, 24, 25, 27). Here it is permissible only to give the amounts of crude sewage or effluents to be added to the nutrient media in order to obtain the best results with the different processes. Total number of bacteria—From 1/100,000 to 1/10,000 c.c. Gelatine plate cultures, incubated at 20° C * Spores of aerobic bacteria—From 1/10 to 1 c.c. Gelatine plate cultures. Cultures previously heated to 80° C. lor 10 minutes. (Incubated at 20° C.) Liquefying bacteria—From 1/100,000 to 1/10,000 c.c. Surface gelatine plate cultures. bated at 20° C.) B. coli—From 1/100,000 to 1/10,000 c.c. Surface phenol (0.05 per cent.) gelatine plate cultures. (Incubated at 20° C.)f Spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes— 1/10,000; 1/1,000; 1/100; 1/10 c.c. Milk cultures, heated to 80° C. for 10 minutes, and cultivated anarëobically. (Incubated 37° C.)‡ The Biological Treatment of Sewage (Section I., pages 18-20, Second Report). In speaking of the discoveries which have paved the way towards a scientific knowledge of the true nature of putrefactive processes, it was said that— "One of the most important discoveries of recent times was that made by Schlœsing and Muntz in 1877. They proved that nitrification, or the oxidation of ammonia to nitric acid, is due to the vital activity of bacteria, and thus carried a stage further the important discovery by Schwann and Schultze (1839) that micro-organisms are the true agents of decomposition. Later, Winogradsky and others described and isolated, in pure culture, nitrifying organisms." "Pasteur, following up the researches of Cagniard and Schwann, demonstrated, in 1857, the relation between lactic, acetic, and butyric fermentations and special organisms." In discussing the aim and object of the biological treatment of sewage it was pointed out that— "In nature the following cycle of transformation takes place. Dead organic matter decays as the result of the vital activity of bacteria, and ammonia is liberated. The nitrifying organisms bring about the oxidation of the ammonia, first to nitrous and then to nitric acid. These acids by reaction upon the bases, always present, form nitrites and nitrates, and these nourish the living plant. While the nitrogen is undergoing these changes, the carbon of the organic matter is converted into carbonic acid, and the hydrogen mainly into water. To some extent also the nitrogen and hydrogen are liberated in the free gaseous state." Further, that— "The organic matters found in sewage are partly in suspension and partly in solution, and sewage contains in itself the necessary living germs for the destruction of both these forms of organic matter. The aim and object of the biological treatment of sewage is to render soluble by microbial agencies the solid matters; and to split up by the action of living bacteria both the matter thus dissolved and organic compounds which were originally in solution into their simpler elements. In the final process of purification, these substances should undergo oxidation induced by the life processes of nitrifying organisms, and an effluent should be produced which is free from putrescible matter and contains only inorganic or mineral substances." Two of the most remarkable phenomena to be observed in the study of biological coke-beds are. (1) the almost complete removal of the suspended matters, and (2) the production of effluents which, although they usually still contain a quite appreciable amount of oxidisable organic matter, are, as a rule, non-putrescible so far, Indeed, as this may be judged of by storing them in (a) completely filled and stoppered bottles and (b) partially filled and stoppered bottles. It appears quite certain that the non-putrescible character of many effluents from bacterial coke-beds is not due to the absence of putrefactive bacteria. This is, of course, very evident from the numerous records which have been given of the bacterial composition of the Crossness effluents. In particular, the following paragraph (page 27, Second Report) is worth quoting— "In experiments 9 and 10 (col. 5, Table I.) it was sought to discover the smallest amount of crude sewage and of effluent which in broth cultures at 20° C. would produce growth, indol reaction and offensive smell. No growth occurred in either case, when as little as 0,0000001 c.c. was inoculated into the broth; but when 0.000001 c.c. was used, growth occurred both in the case of the crude sewage and of the effluent, and the cultures had an offensive smell and gave indol reaction." Probably the explanation lies, in part at all events, in a change in the character of the organic matter still remaining in the effluents. Possibly also the liquid acquires some quality inhibiting the putrefactive bacteria from exerting their putrescent effect. Some stress was laid upon the fact that in certain cases "it may not be necessary to attempt the complete purification of the sewage, the solution of the suspended matters and partial destruction of the putrescible matters being all that is urgently called for, as, for example, where the * In illustration of such cultures see Plate 1. fig. No. 2, First Report. + „ „ Plate 1, fig. No. 1, First Report. ‡ „ „ Plate 1, fig. No. 14, First Report. 53 effluent is of relatively small bulk and is turned into a stream which is not used for domes lie purposes (as is the case in the lower Thames) or else when the effluent is to be subsequently treated by land irrigation." And it was asserted that "the mere solution of the great mass of the suspended matters by bacterial agencies, which is, perhaps, common to all the different processes at present under trial, is a sufficient vindication of the enormous advantage to be gained by the biological treatment of sewage." In conclusion reference was made to the systems of sewage disposal advocated by Messrs. Scott-Moncrieff, Cameron, Ducat, Dibdin and Thudichum, etc. In Table I. (pages 28 to 31) the results were given of the bacteriological examination of Crossness crude sewage, the effluent from the 4-foot coke-bed, the effluent from the 6-foot cokebed, and the effluent from the laboratory vessel (effluent from 6-foot coke-bed again treated in the laboratory at Crossness). Most of the results recorded in this table have already been summarised, but it is worthy of note that besides searching for B. enteritidis and B. coli the attempt was also made to estimate the number as well as the character of other microbes present in the crude sewage and effluents, and that notes under this heading are recorded in the table. Thus, the micro-organism called "sewage proteus"* was found to be present in great numbers (usually more than 100,000 in 1 c.c.) both in the crude sewage and effluents. In Table 2 (pages 32-33) the results were shown of the bacteriological examination of the effluents from the Crossness and Barking Outfall Works and of the water of the River Thames. As regards the effluents from the Barking and Crossness precipitation tanks it may be said that they were no better, if, indeed, they were not worse than average samples of crude sewage. As regards Thames water, samples were taken at Greenhithe and Barking in such a way as to avoid, as far as this was possible, the influence of sewage discharge. These samples in their bacterial composition resembled dilute crude sewage. Samples were also collected high up the river, namely (1) between Sunbury and Hampton, just above the intake of the Southwark and Vauxhall Water Company (dry weather) and (2) at Twickenham (very wet weather). The former contained 40 gas-forming B. coli in 1 c.c. B. enteritidis sporoqenes was present in 300 c.c. (1 c.c. of the culture killed a guineapig in less than 21 hours), but not in 100 c.c. The latter contained 100 gas-forming B. coli, and at least 10, but less than 100 spores of B. enteritidis per. c.c. Thus it will be seen that Thames water at Barking and Greenhithe was no better than dilute crude sewage, and even as high up as near Hampton and Twickenham showed distinct evidence of pollution of the most objectionable kind. These experiments were undertaken with a two-fold object. In the first place to show that the effluents from the chemical precipitation tanks were no better, if, indeed, they were not worse than the effluents from the bacterial coke-beds, and secondly to demonstrate the fact that Thames water is already grossly polluted, and contains practically all the bacteria to be found in the effluents. In section V. (pages 33-40) a description was given of some of the bacteria found in the crude sewage and in the effluents from the coke-beds. In illustration of the Report there were 14 diagrams, 24 micro-photographs, and 4 diagrammatic drawings. 3.—SUMMARY OF THE CONTENTS OF THE SUPPLEMENT TO THE SECOND REPORT.† In this Report a description was given of the results of the bacteriological examination of the deposit which accumulates on the coke of the coke-beds. The Report covered work carried out during May, June, and July, 1899. A sample of the deposit from the coke-bed at Barking contained 1,800,000 microbes; and at least 10,000 but less than 100,000 spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes per gramme. Further, two mice inoculated with small portions of the deposit died of tetanus. Stained, as for tubercle, a large number of "acid-fast" bacteria were found in the deposit. Other samples of deposit from the same and from other coke-beds were also found to contain these bacteria; and when crude sewage and effluents from coke-beds were centrifugalised and the deposit stained a similar result was obtained. Experiments on animals were negative with one exception; in this case the animal died of true tuberculosis. In concluding the report it was said that— I. In crude sewage, in bacterial coke-beds, and in the effluents from bacterial beds there are certain bacteria which, after being stained with hot carbol fuchsin, resist decolorisation with 33 per cent. nitric acid. II. Some of these "acid-fast" bacteria cannot, with certainty, be morphologically distinguished from the tubercle bacillus. III. In one instance a guinea-pig inoculated with the deposit accumulating on the coke of a bacterial bed died, and presented on examination the appearance of death from tubercle infection, and sections of its organs, when appropriately stained, showed the presence of numerous tubercle bacilli. In illustration of the Report there were 10 micro-photographs and 1 coloured drawing. * A full description of the morphological and biological characters of this bacillus is given on pages 36 and 37 of the Second Report. † Supplement to the Second Report. Notes on the deposit winch accumulates on the coke fragments of the coke-beds at Crossness. 54 II.—THE EXPERIMENTS ON BACTERIAL TREATMENT AT BARKING. It will be remembered that in the First Report the results were given of the examination of nine samples of Barking crude sewage. In the Second Report the results of the bacterial treatment of the sewage in coke-beds at Crossness were given. Here it is proposed to deal with somewhat similar experiments carried out at Barking. I.—THE COKE AND RAGSTONE BEDS. * The beds were four in number, namely, two of coke (coarse and fine), and two of ragstone (coarse and fine). Some of the experiments with the effluents as regards their effect on animals are recorded elsewhere (experiments on animals, p. 68), and it will be remembered that the Supplement to the Second Report dealt chiefly with the deposit accumulating upon the coke in the coke-beds at Barking. The effluents were chiefly examined for the presence of B. enteritidis sporogenes, and the results obtained in this direction are given in the form of a Table. But on March l6, 1899, a sample of Barking crude sewage, and the effluents from the fine ragstone-bed and the fine coke-bed were further examined for the total number of bacteria and number of B. coli. The results were as follows: — Barking crude sewage 10.000,000 bacteria in 1 c.c. 600,000 B. coli in 1 c.c. Effluent from fine ragstone-bed 4,000,000 bacteria in 1 c.c. 500,000 B. coli in 1 c.c. (60 per cent. reduction.) (16 per cent. reduction.) Effluent from fine coke-bed 1,800.000 bacteria in 1 c.c. 300,000 B. coli in 1 c.c. (82 per cent. reduction.) (50 per cent. reduction.) The following is a Table of the results as regards B. enteritidis sporogenes (Klein)— Table 1.—Number of Spores of B. Enteritidis Sporogenes (Klein). Date. Barking crude sewage. Effluents from the coke and ragstone beds at Barking. Coke. Ragstone. Coarse. Fine. Coarse. Fine. 1899 Jan. 26 + .01 and .001 c.c ... + .01 and .001 c.c. + .01; — .001 c.c. Feb. 2 + .01 and .001 c.c. + .01; — .001 c.c. + .01; — .001 c.c. + .01 and .001 c.c. + .01 and .001 c.c. 9 + .01 and .001 c.c. + .01; — .001 c.c. + .01; — .001 c.c. + .01 and .001 c.c. + .01; — .001 c.c. 15 + .01 and .001 c.c. + .01 and .001 c.c. + .01 and .001 c.c. + .01 and .001 c.c. + .01 and .001 c.c. Mar. 8 + .01 c.c. + .01 c.c. + .01 c.c. + .01 c.c. + .01 c.c. 16 + .01 c.c. — .01 c.c. + .01 c.c. Apr.13 + .01 c.c. — .01 c.c. — .01 c.c. + .01 c.c. — .01 c.c. The sign + signifies the presence and the sign — the absence of the spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes. These results are shown in graphic form in Diagram 1. It might have been anticipated that the fine beds would have produced a significant alteration in the number of spores of this pathogenic anaerobe. Such, however, was not the case, and although the number in the effluents was usually less than in the corresponding samples of crude sewage, the reduction was not very well marked, and was not, moreover, a constant feature. There did not seem to be any striking difference between the coarse and fine beds, or between the two kinds of material (coke and ragstone) as regards the number of spores of B. enteritidis. 2.—THE DOUBLE COKE-BEDS. These coke-beds are known as— The primary coarse coke-bed, series A The secondary „ „ ,, A description of these beds will be found in The primary ,, „ „ B the Chemical Division of the Report. The secondary fine „ „ J From October 16, 1899, to January 17, 1990, the new beds at Barking were under bacteriological observation. The results obtained will be dealt with briefly as follows— (a) Total Number of Bacteria (gelatine at 20° C.). The number of micro-organisms in the crude sewage and effluents is given in the following Table— * A description of these beds will be found in the Chemical Division of the Report. 55 Table 2.—Total number of bacteria in 1 c.c. Date. Barking crude sewage. Effluent from primary ooarse bed; series A. Effluent from secondary coarse bed; series A. Effluent from primary coarse bed; series B. Effluent from secondary fine bed; series B 1899. October 16 7,200,000 1,700,000 800,000 ... ... 23 5,440,000 1,500,000 ... ... 900,000 November 1 8,800,000 2,640,000 2,000,000 ... ... 7 7,060,000 ... ... 1,070,000 400,000 13 3,680,000 ... 1,180,000 910,000 ... 28 10,400,000 ... 4,800,000 2,640,000 December 5 ... ... 1,480,000 4,520,000 1,000,000 12 ... ... 2,240,000 2,900,000 1,420,000 1900. January 3 ... 2,880,000 3,970,000 ... 2,530,000 17 ... ... 1,760,000 2,000,000 1,220,000 These results are shown in graphic form in Diagram 2. It is to be noted that on four occasions one or other of the effluents contained less than one million microbes per c.c., and on fifteen occasions not more than two millions. On November 7th the effluent from the secondary fine bed ( series B. ) contained only 400,000 microbes per c.c., as compared with 7,000,000 in the crude sewage, a reduction of over 94 per cent. (b) Number of B. Coli or Closely Allied Forms. The number of B. coli in the crude sewage and effluents is shown in the following Table— Table 3.— Number of B. coli, or closely allied forms, in 1 c.c. Date. Barking crude sewage. Effluent from primary coarse bed; series A. Effluent from secondary coarse bed; series A. Effluent from primary coarse bed; series B. Effluent from secondary fine bed; series B. 1899. October 16 800,000 None in .00001 c.c. 100,000 ... ... 23 200,000 800,000 ... ... None in .00001 c.c. November 1 1,600,000 500,000 500,000 ... 7 1,200,000 ... ... 200,000 None in .00001 c.c. 13 600,000 ... 300,000 None in .00001 c.c. ... 28 200,000 ... ... 200.000 100,000 December 5 ... ... 100,000 100,000 None in 00001 c.c. 12 ... ... 100,000 400,000 400,500 1900. January 3 ... 200,000 100,000 ... 200,000 17 ... ... None in .00001 c.c. 100,000 None in .00001 c.c. These results are shown in graphic form in Diagram 3. It will be noted that on seven occasions one or other of the effluents contained no B. coli in '00001 c.c. Usually, however, the effluents contained at least 100,000 B. coli per c.c. Although there was evidence of a reduction in the number of B. coli in the effluents as compared with the crude sewage, the large number still remaining in the effluents must be regarded as very unsatisfactory from the epidemiological point of view. (c) Number of Spores of B. Enteritidis Sporogenes. The number of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes is shown in the following Table— Table 4.—Number of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes (Klein). Date. Barking crude sewage. Effluent from primary coarse bed; series A. Effluent from secondary coarse bed; series A. Effluent from primary coarse bed; series B. Effluent from secondary fine bed; series B. 1899 Oct. 16 23 Nov. 1 7 13 28 Dec. 5 12 1900 Jan. 3 17 C.C. + .1, .01 and .001 + .1, .01 and .001 + .1, .01 and .001 + .1, .01 and .001 + .01; — .001 + .1 and .01 C.C. + .l and .01;—.001 + .1, .01 and .001 + .1, .01 and .001 + .01; — .001 c.c. + .1, .01 and .001 + .1, .01;* — .001 + .01; — .001 + .01 ; — .001 + .01 and .001 + .01 and .001 + .01 c.c. + .1 and .01; — .001 + .01 ; — .001 + .1 and .01 + .01 and .001 + .01 and .001 + .01 c.c. + .1 and .01; — .001 + .1 and .01; — .001 + .1 and 01; — .001 + .1 and .01 + .01; — .001 + .01; — .001 + .01; — .001 — .01 The sign + signifies the presence and the sign — the absence of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes. These results are shown in graphic form in Diagram 4. Although as a rule the effluents contained fewer spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes than the crude sewage, the reduction was not very well marked, and, moreover, was not a constant factor. It cannot therefore be said that the biological processes at work in the coke-beds effected any significant alteration in the number of spores of this pathogenic anaerobe. 56 (d) Concluding Remarks. On November 1st, 1899, B. pyocyaneus* was isolated from 1/1000 c.c. of the effluent from the second coarse bed (series A). It was very virulent, 1 c.c. of a 24 hours broth culture killing a guinea-pig in less than 24 hours. The same micro-organism was isolated in pure culture from the heart's blood, etc., of the animal. (See fig. 5, Plate II.) On December 6th, 1899, three strains of "sewage proteus" were isolated from 1/10000 c.c.. of the effluent from the primary coarse bed (series B). They all liquefied gelatine very rapidly, they were actively motile, and produced "gas" in 24 hours in gelatine "shake" cultures. One of the strains killed a guinea-pig in 24 hours (1 c.c. of broth culture); another was not so virulent, ulceration occurred at the site of the inoculation, and the animal recovered; the third produced only a slight local reaction. This latter non-virulent strain of "sewage proteus" was used to inoculate the 13-feet coke-bed at Crossness (see page 75). On November 1st, 1899, streptococci xix., xx., and xxi., were isolated from 1/1000 c.c. respectively of the effluent from the primary coarse bed (series A), the effluent from the secondary coarse bed (series A), and the crude sewage. (See pages 66 and 67.) During a considerable period of the enquiry, attention was directed to the study of the thermophilic bacteria. It was suggested to me, by Dr. Gordon, that a comparison of their numbers in the crude sewage and effluents might be of value. These micro-organisms (B. thermophilus and its allies) have been shown to be present in the alimentary canal of human beings and mammals, in sewage, in sewage-contaminated waters, and in soil, but not in pure waters. It was found that thermophilic bacteria § (capable of growing luxuriantly in broth culture at a temperature of 60-70° c.) were present in London crude sewage in abundance. They were also present, although usually in smaller proportion, in the effluents from the coke-beds. It has been suggested that the presence or absence of these bacteria in a water supply might be employed as a test of potability. But, in my experience, thermophilic bacteria are present in numbers in soils not recently polluted and are often absent from waters known to be freshly contaminated with objectionable matters, waters, moreover, which, by more reliable and delicate bacteriological tests, can readily be shown to be dangerously polluted. Certainly the presence of thermophilic bacteria in a water would lead one to suspect gross contamination, but their absence could hardly be regarded as testifying to purity or "safety." Nevertheless, the test, as a rough indication of the probable biological quality of a liquid and as a means of comparing different liquids, e.g., crude sewage and bacterial effluents, is one not devoid of value. III—THE EXPERIMENTS ON BACTERIAL TREATMENT AT CROSSNESS. 1.—FURTHER EXPERIMENTS WITH THE EFFLUENTS FROM THE 4-FOOT, 6-FOOT (PRIMARY), AND 6-FOOT (SECONDARY) COKE-BEDS AT CROSSNESS. In the Second Report the bacteriological results were brought up to the end of December, 1898. In the early part of the year 1899 some further experiments were carried out with the effluents from the 4-foot, 6-foot (primary), and 6-foot (secondary) coke-beds. These took the form of comparative determinations of the number of spores of anaerobic bacteria in the raw sewage and in the effluents from the coke-beds. Number of Spores of Anaerobic Bacteria in Crossness Crude Sewage and in the Effluents from the Coke-beds. The effect of the bacterial treatment of the raw sewage in coke-beds as regards the number of spores of anaerobic bacteria was to a considerable extent covered by the comparative determinations of the number of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes in the raw sewage and in the effluents, carried out since February, 1898. Nevertheless, it was considered advisable to supplement those records with a series of experiments dealing with the number of spores of anaerobic bacteria of all kinds in the raw sewage and in the effluents capable of growing at 37° C. in agar under anaerobic conditions. Table 5.—Number of spores of anaerobic bacteria in 1 c.c. [Agar at 37° C.] Date. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from 4 ft. coke-bed. Effluent from 6 ft. primary coke-bed. Effluent from 6 ft. secondary coke-bed. 1899. January 11 1,988 720 920 No record 18 304 380 424 224 25 424 516 232 336 February 1 201 100 191 197 8 The growths spread over the surface of the medium, preventing accurate counting. 15 148 212 160 124 22 262 128 196 156 The agar tubes were boiled for half-an-hour, rapidly cooled to 80° C., inoculated with the sewage or effluent, and heated to 80° C. for 10 minutes. The contents were next poured into plates, and these were immediately placed in an air-tight chamber containing a freshly-prepared mixture of pyrogallic acid and potassium hydrate solution. These results are shown in graphic form in Diagram 5. * See fig. 5. This micro-organism (B. Pyocyaneus) must not be confused with the ordinary liquefying fluorescent bacillus (B. fluorescens liquefaciens) of sewage, soil and water. R. fluorescens liqucfaciens does not grow, or only imperfectly, at blood-heat, and is not virulent; and differs in a number of other important respects from B. Pyocyaneus. § figs. 9 and 10 show the morphological appearance of B. Thermophilus or an allied form. The microorganism represented in the micro-photographs was isolated from London crude sewage: it grew luxuriantly at a temperature of 60-70° C. 57 Excluding the results obtained on January 11th, as the figures are abnormally high, and there is no record on that date for the 6-foot secondary coke-bed, the averages are as follows— Average number of spores of anaërobic bacteria in five samples of Crossness crude sewage, and in five comparative effluents from the 4-foot, 6-foot (primary), and 6-foot (secondary) coke-beds, 268; 267; 240; and 207 per c.c. respectively. It will be seen from these results that the bacterial treatment of the crude sewage in the coke-beds did not effect any marked alteration in the number of spores of anaerobic bacteria. Indeed the number in the effluent from the 4-foot coke-bed was practically the same as in the raw sewage, and in the case of the effluents from the 6-foot (primary) and 6-foot (secondary) coke-beds the reduction was only 10 and 22 per cent. respectively. Pressure of other work for the Council made it impossible to study fully the morphological and biological characters of the different kinds of anaerobic bacteria isolated in pure culture from the anaërobic agar plates; and the notes under this heading are of too fragmentary a character to make it advisable to place them on record. So far as could be made out there was no difference as regards species of microbes between the anaerobic cultures made from the crude sewage and those made from the effluents from the coke-beds. The appearance presented by the colonies (superficial and deep) under a low power of the microscope is shown diagrammatically in Plate V., fig. C. So far as could be judged by observation under a low power of the microscope and by making sub-cultures the number of spore-forming anaerobes of different species was not great. As regards growth in anaerobic milk culture some of the microbes isolated from the agar plate cultures produced precipitation of the casein, with abundant development of gas, the whey remaining nearly transparent, or presenting only a slightly cloudy appearance; others produced no visible change even after several days incubation at 37° C.; others again gave rise to an appearance resembling slow peptonization, beginning just below the surface, and gradually extending downwards in cylindrical fashion. A rise or fall above or below the mean in the number of the spores of anaerobic bacteria in the crude sewage was usually associated with a similar increase or decrease in the number of spores of anaerobes in the effluents from the 4-foot, 6-foot (primary), and 6-foot (secondary) coke-beds. In conclusion, and as an addition to the records of the bacterial composition of Crossness crude sewage, it may be worthy of note that the number of spores of anaerobic bacteria (agar at 37° C.) in Crossness crude sewage is usually between 200 and 300 per c.c. 2.—EXPERIMENTS WITH THE EFFLUENTS FROM THE 13-FOOT COKE-BED AT CROSSNESS* The chief results obtained will be given under the following headings— (a) Total number of bacteria (gelatine at 20° C.). (b) Number of B. coli or closely allied forms. (c) Number of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes (Klein). (d) Number of bacteria capable of growing in agar at 37° C. (a) Total Number of Bacteria (gelatine at 20° C.). Table 6.—Showing the total number of bacteria in 1 c.c. Date. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from the 13 ft. coke-bed at Crossness. 1899. March 22 .5,000,000 2,000,000 May 11 4,600,000 3,000,000 July 5 7,200,000 16,000,000 August 2 4,110,000 8,000,000 September 1 2,240,000 1,940,000 7 3,910,000 1,490,000 13 11,170,000 5,040,000 19 9,580,000 6,750,000 27 5,000,000 4,100,000 October 4 4,300,000 5,320,000 These results are shown in graphic form in Diagram 6. It is to be noted that the average numbers of microbes in the crude sewage and in the effluent from the 13-foot coke-bed were 5,711,000 and 5,364,000 per c.c. respectively. This means a reduction of only 6 per cent., the reason being that on July 5th and August 2nd the effluent contained a much larger number of micro-organisms than the raw sewage. On all other occasions, with one exception (October 4th), the effluent contained fewer bacteria than the corresponding samples of crude sewage. A rise or fall above or below the mean in the total number of microbes in the raw sewage was coincident with a similar increase or decrease in the number of germs in the corresponding samples of effluent on eight occasions. In the remaining three cases this relationship was not observed. * A description of this bed will be found in the Chemical Division of the Report. [8] 58 (b) Number of B. Coli or Closely Allied Forms. The results, as regards B. coli, are given in the following table— Table 7.—Number of B. coli or closely allied forms per c.c. Date. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from the 13 ft. coke-bed at Crossness. 1899. March 22 100,000 100,000 May 11 700,000 200,000 July 5 None in 0.00001 c.c. None in 0.0000l c.c. August 2 900,000 400,000 September 1 400,000 200,000 7 300,000 100,000 13 500,000 900,000 19 1,900,000 900,000 27 500.000 300,000 October 4 600,000 600,000 These results are shown in graphic form in Diagram 7. The Table shows that on one occasion the number of B. coli was greater in the effluent from the 13-foot coke-bed than in the corresponding sample of raw sewage. In nearly all the other cases the crude sewage contained the larger number. Nevertheless, although on an average the bacterial treatment of the crude sewage effected a reduction in the number of B. coli, the number actually remaining in the effluents was very large—usually more than 100,000 per c.c. (c) Number of Stores of B. Enteritidis Sporogenes (Klein). The results, as regards B. enteritidis sporogenes, are given in the following table— Table 8. —Showing the number of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes (Klein). Date. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from the 13 ft. coke-bed at Crossness. 1899. March 22 + .01 c.c. + .01 c.c. April 12 + .01 and .001; — .0001 c.c. + .01; — .001 c.c. 19 + .01; — .001 c.c. + .01; — .001 c.c. 27 + .001; — .0001 c.c. + .01; — .001 c.c. May 4 + .01 and .001; — .0001 c.c. + .01; — .001 c.c. 11 + .01; — .001 c.c. — .01 c.c. 18 + .01; —.001 c.c. — .01 c.c. July 5 + .01; — .001 c.c. + .1; — .01 c.c. August 2 + .1 and .01; — .001 c.c. + .1 and .01; — .001 c.c. September 1 + .1, .01 and .001 c.c. + .1 and .01; — .001 c.c. 7 + .1 and .01; — .001 c.c. + .1, .01 and .001 c.c. 13 + .1, .01 and .001 c.c. + .1, .01 and .001 c.c. 19 + .1, .01 and .001 c.c. + .1 and .01; — .001 c.c. 27 + .1 and .01; — .001 c.c. + .1 and .01; — .001 c.c. October 4 + .1 and .01; — .001 c.c. + .1 and .01; — .001 c.c. The sign 4- signifies the presence and the sign — the absence of the spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes. These results are shown in graphic form in Diagram 8. It is to be noted that although the number of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes was frequently less in the effluents from the 13-feet coke-bed than in the corresponding samples of crude sewage, the actual number of spores remaining in the effluent after the bacterial treatment of the sewage was very large—usually at least 100, but less than 1,000 in 1 c.c. (d) Number of Bacteria capable of growing in Agar at 37° C. In the Second Report (page 27) it was pointed out that—"In experiments 3 and 5 (col. 5, Table I.) the number of bacteria in the crude sewage capable of growing at 37° C. in agar was estimated. The numbers were 1,260,000 and 1,171,000 per c.c., as compared with 3,670,000 and 6,400,000 obtained by gelatine plate cultivation at 20° C. A similar experiment (experiment 4) with the effluent from the 4-foot coke-bed gave 1,630,000 (agar at 37° C.) as compared with 4,100,000 (gelatine at 20° C.) bacteria per c.c." At the period (May, 1898) when these experiments were carried out the pressure of other important work prevented a series of experiments being carried out on the above lines. It, however, was considered important to extend these observations at as early a date as possible. 59 The following Table gives the number of bacteria (agar at 37° C.) in Crossness crude sewage and in the effluent from the 13-foot coke-bed. It also gives, for comparative purposes, the number of bacteria (gelatine at 20° C.) in the corresponding samples. Table 9.—Showing the number of bacteria (agar at 37° C. and gelatine at 20° C.) in seven samples of Crossness crude sewage, and seven samples of the effluent from the 13 ft. coke-bed. Date. Number of bacteria in 1 c.c. Crossness crude sewage. Effluent from the 13 ft. coke-bed. Agar at 37° C. Gelatine at 20° C. Agar at 37° C. Gelatine at 20° C. 1899. August 2 2,660,000 4,110,000 2,540,000 8,000,000 September 1 1,660,000 2,240,000 670,000 1,940,000 7. 1,530,000 3,910,000 930,000 1,490,000 13 6,830,000 11,170,000 5,210,000 5,040,000 19 5,270,000 9,580,000 4,020,000 6,750,000 27 2,600,000 5,000,000 2,400,000 4,100,000 October 4 2,510,000 4,300,000 3,850,000 5,320,000 These results are shown in graphic form in Diagram 9. The Table shows that the average number of bacteria (agar at 37° C.) in the crude sewage and in the effluent was 3,294,444 and 2,802,857 respectively per c.c., showing a reduction of about 14 per cent. Further, that the average number of bacteria (gelatine at 20° C.) in the crude sewage and in the effluents was 5,758,571 and 4,662,857 respectively per c.c., i.e., a reduction of about 19 per cent. Comparing the figures 3,294,444 (agar at 37° C.) and 5,758,571 (gelatine at 20° C.) it is to be noted that the difference is 42 per cent., hence more than one-half of the number of bacteria capable of growing in gelatine at 20° C. can likewise grow in agar at 37° C. When a similar comparison is made as regards the effluents from the 13-foot coke-bed the difference is 39 per cent. It is evident from these results that the bacterial treatment of the sewage in the coke-beds did not effect any marked reduction in the number of blood-heat organisms; indeed, the reduction was less as regards these germs than as regards the bacteria growing in gelatine at 20° C. Although gelatine is doubtless a more favourable medium than agar for the growth of bacteria of all sorts, it is not the difference of nutrient medium, but of temperature which chiefly accounts for the difference in the numbers under the two sets of conditions. As a matter of fact the number of bacteria in sewage capable of growing at 37° C. is both actually very great and is very great also in relation to the total number of microbes growing at the ordinary temperature, the reason apparently being that so many of the micro-organisms found in sewage are derived from the intestinal discharges of animals, e.g., B. coli, which has been shown to be present in numbers usually exceeding 100,000 per c.c. In pure waters the number of "blood-heat" bacteria is usually small, and their ratio to the number of germs growing at the ordinary temperature is likewise small. Although a large number of "blood-heat bacteria is considered a bad sign, it must not be supposed that all the different species of microbes capable of growing at 37° C. are harmful. Many found in sewage and elsewhere in nature are, so far as we know, quite unobjectionable, e.g., B. subtilis, B. mesentericus, B. mycoides, etc. On the other hand others are decidedly objectionable and may be pathogenic, e.g. B. coli and B. proteus (certain forms), and some are definitely pathogenic, e.g., B. pyocyaneus. In the Second Report (page 27) it was stated—"A cultivation of B. pyocyaneus isolated from a sample of Crossness crude sewage proved to be extremely virulent. Thus 1 c.c. of a twenty-four hours' broth culture (at 37° C.) injected subcutaneously into a guineapig killed the animal in less than twenty-four hours, and the organism was recovered in pure culture from the heart's blood, spleen, etc." On November 1, 1899, B. pyocyaneus* was isolated from 1/1000 c.c. of the effluent from the secondary coarse bed (series A) at Barking. A guinea-pig injected subcutaneously with 1 c.c of a twenty-four hours' broth culture (at 37° C.) died in less than twenty-four hours, and the same micro-organism was isolated in pure culture from its heart's blood. In the light of this result (apart from the numerous records contained in this and previous Reports of equal or greater significance) it is strange that many still consider the effluents from coke-beds and in general from bacterial processes, non-pathogenic. So far as may be judged by a rise or fall above or below the mean, the figures show that both as regards the crude sewage and the effluents there was a decided parallelism between the number of bacteria growing in agar at 37° C. and the number growing in gelatine at 20° C. Similarly, a rise or fall above or below the mean in the number of bacteria capable of growing in agar at 37° C. in the crude sewage was nearly always coincident with a rise or fall in the number of microbes in the corresponding effluents from the 13-foot coke bed. In conclusion, and by way of addition to the chief results which have been obtained during the progress of the inquiry, it is to be noted that the number of bacteria capable of growing in agar at blood-heat in Crossness crude sewage is usually over three millions per c.c., and more than one-half of the number of microbes growing in gelatine at 20° C. It must be admitted that the 13-foot coke-bed at Crossness yielded very unsatisfactory results from the bacteriological point of view. * See fig. 5. 60 Thus although the effluents usually contained fewer bacteria and less of B. culi and spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes than the crude sewage, the reduction was not well marked, and, indeed, was immaterial from the epidemiological point of view, considering the actual number still remaining. For, as has been already pointed out, the effluents usually contained more than one million microbes, more than 100,000 B. coli, and at least 100 but less than 1,000 spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes per c.c. IV.—STREPTOCOCCI IN THE BARKING AND CROSSNESS CRUDE SEWAGE AND IN THE EFFLUENTS FROM THE BACTERIAL COKE-BEDS. In the First Report* under the heading of "Methods" it was stated that streptococci and staphylococci were to be looked for in agar cultures incubated at blood-heat. In the Second Report† when dealing with the "species of micro-organisms" it was noted that streptococci and staphylococci were present both in the crude sewage and in the effluents from the coke-beds. In the present Report it is proposed to give the results of the work carried out in this direction. It is to be noted that the records extend back to November, 1898. Although attention was directed to the study of staphylococci as well as streptococci it is the latter class of germs which will be considered here. One reason why staphylococci are considered of relatively less importance than streptococci in connection with the work is that the former as a class are hardy germs, whereas the latter as a class are delicate micro-organisms. The b aring of this remark will be shown presently. My chief reasons for considering this portion of the sewage inquiry of special and peculiar importance are briefly as follows— Speaking of streptococci as a class it may be said that— (1) They are among the most pathogenic of all the bacteria which are at present known; (2) They are delicate germs, and very readily lose their (vitality and die; (3) They are present in the intestinal discharges of animals. In human fteces there may be more than 1,000 present in one gramme; (4) They are absent from water and soil ,§ except in those cases where there has been recent contamination with sewage or other substances equally objectionable in character. It will presently¶ be shown that both in crude sewage and in effluents from coke-beds streptococci are present in great abundance—usually more than 1,000 in 1 c.c.—and that the bacterial treatment of the raw sewage effected no marked alteration in their numbers. Now if the streptococci found in such numbers in the crude sewage and in the effluents are derived from the intestinal contents of animals, and are delicate germs, and are also pathogenic, the position is a somewhat serious one. In the first place, as regards experiments on animals, the records show that the streptococei were more often non-pathogenic than pathogenic in the case of mice. Numerous records of the effects on mice of streptococci isolated from soil-polluted water, sewage, and sewage effluents which I have since obtained and which are not included in this Report show that as a rule, and when obtained from the above sources, they are not pathogenic. Still it must not be lost sight of that the absence of pathogenic effect on mice does not necessarily imply the absence of diseaseproducing property in other animals. Nor does it prove that the streptococci were previously nonpathogenic. Further, it is conceivable that some alteration in the conditions surrounding these streptococci might, if they had been pathogenic in the past, restore to them all their original virulence. Speaking in general terms, however, it may be said that the streptococci found in nature outside the animal body, e.g., in polluted soils and water, in sewage and sewage effluents are not as a rule pathogenic to mice. Secondly, as regards the assertion that streptococci are delicate germs and readily lose their vitality and die. Although this certainly accords with our experience of streptococci isolated from the human subject, particularly in cases of disease and septic infection, it might well be the case that some at all events of the streptococci occurring in nature outside the animal body, e.g., in sewage, are hardy germs and are capable not only of resisting death, but also of multiplying under favourable conditions. In all probability this is true to some extent, yet it is not without significance that certain of the streptococci about to be described when subcultured in gelatine and incubated at 20° C. showed little or no appreciable growth at the end of thirteen days. And some of the streptococci that I have isolated from sewage-polluted water, etc., have proved their delicacy by refusing to grow when subcultures were not carried out at short intervals. Thus on several occasions the study of a streptococcus has been prematurely cut short by the death of the organism. Still further it has been a matter of common observation that subcultures made from colonies in agar plate cultures of sewage which (colonies) under a low power of the microscope revealed their real nature by the occurrence of separate loops of cocci at the periphery, frequenily showed no growth, the microbes (streptococci) having already lost their vitality. In opposition to this it might be urged that certain of the streptococci in sewage are in reality hardy germs, but that the * Filtration of sewage (First Report), page 3, B. 6 (e). † Bacterial treatment of crude sewage (Second Report), page 27, III., 4 (c). § The significance of streptococci in water and soil is dealt with by me in Reports to the Local Government Board. Report of the Medical Officer, Local Government Board, 1898-9. In this and succeeding paragraphs I purposely anticipate what follows. 61 nutrient media ordinarily employed by bacteriologists is not the most suitable kind of pabulum for them. It is to be noted as possibly affording some support to this view that if sewage be centrifugalised and the deposit stained* the microbes taking the stain are not, as might have been anticipated, chiefly bacillary in form, but appear either as cocci or rods, so short and rounded at their ends as to simulate cocci. Moreover, these cocci are frequently arranged in long chains (streptococci). Nevertheless, it may be said with a fair measure of confidence that some, at all events, of the streptococci in sewage and in sewage effluents are delicate germs, and readily lose their vitality and die. The importance to be attached to these observations is great. If in the bacterial treatment of sewage micro-organisms of presumably feeble vitality pass through the coke-beds in practically unaltered numbers, then there is every reason to fear that those microbes which we know are distinctly pathogenic to man, and which may be either habitually present in sewage or present as chance and occasional visitors, and some of which are believed to be in comparison hardy germs, would likewise be unaffected by the biological processes at work in the coke-beds. In previous Reports I have stated "that the balance of evidence points to the probability that some, at all events, of the pathogenic organisms are crowded out in the struggle for existence in a nutritive medium, containing a mixed bacterial flora, their vitality being weakened or destroyed by the enzymes of the saprophytic species." This broad statement was permissible then, but now, in the light of these results, it can hardly be considered altogether satisfactory. Lastly, as regards the source of streptococci, it has been said that they are present in the intestinal discharges of animals, and are absent from waters and soils except in cases of recent and objectionable pollution. It might perhaps be argued that streptococci may have a wide distribution in nature, and if so that their presence in a substance, be it soil or sewage or water, is of little or no significance. Against this view it may be pointed out that if they are delicate germs it is unlikely that they would survive, much less multiply in nature unless the conditions were ideally favourable. Further, that although I have frequently isolated streptococci from as minute a quantity of sewage as .001 c.c., and of human fæces as 0.001 gramme, I have repeatedly failed to demonstrate their presence in comparatively large amounts of pure water and pure soils.|| These facts have led me to advocate this test (presence of streptococci) as a valuable one in the bacterioscopic examination of waters.† Not, indeed, that the absence of streptococci implies "safety," but that their presence affords strong evidence of reeent and therefore presumably specially dangerous pollution. In conclusion I venture to assert that this test is of extreme (value in judging sewage effluents from the biological point of view. And I am strongly of opinion that if an effluent contains streptococci in practically unaltered numbers, or even in reduced numbers where such reduction is only in the same proportion as the other microbes also present are reduced, then such an effluent is, as regards danger to health, no better in the first case than raw sewage and no safer in the latter than crude sewage slightly diluted, but otherwise unaltered in its possible capacity of giving rise to disease. The following is a description of some of the streptococci isolated from London crude sewage and from the effluents from the bacterial beds. 1. Name—Streptococcus I. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c., Crossness crude sewage. 3. Date—November 16th, 1898. 4. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. The chains of cocci are usually short. 5. Plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)— (a) Agar (37° C.)—Small transparent colonies showing wavy granulation. The colonies are irregular in shape, and at the edges the loops of cocci can be made out§. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Small transparent colonies, circular in shape, and faintly granular. The edges are clean and no loops of cocci are visible. No liquefaction. 6. Streak cultures— (а) Agar (37° C.) Small transparent colonies, faintly granular. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—A white, transparent film-like growth, which on close observation is seen to be made up of separate colonies. No liquefaction occurs. 7. Gelatine at 37° C.—No diffuse cloudiness. Flocculent little masses with cirrhus-like extensions.If 8. Broth cultures (37° C.)—The broth remains quite transparent. Flocculent masses with cirrhuslike extensions are formed in the fluid. Old broth cultures show at the foot of the tube a white granular mass, the medium itself being quite transparent. On shaking the tube, granular masses of various sizes rise in the clear liquid and rapidly subside again to the bottom.† 9. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—Strong acidity and solid clot in 24 hours. 10. Remarks—A mouse inoculated subcutaneously with 1 c.c. of broth culture remained apparently unaffected. 1. Name—Streptococcus II. 2. Source—1/1000 Crossness 6 ft. primary coke-bed effluent. 3. Date—November 16th, 1898. 4. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. Very short chains as a rule, but occasionally a chain of medium length may be found. * Deposit upon the coke in the coke-beds. (Supplement to the Second Report.) See also Plate II., Figs. 6, 7, and 8 of this Report. ║ I have, however, found streptococci in abundance in waters and soils recently polluted with sewage. † Report of the Medical Officer, Local Government Board, 1898-99. § Plate IV., fig. A. (a). ¶ Plate IV., fig. B. (a). ‡ Plate IV., fig. B. (b). 62 5. Plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)— (а) Agar (37° C.)—Small transparent circular faintly-granular colonies with firm edges. No loops of cocci are visible at the periphery.* (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Small transparent faintly-granular colonies, circular in shape with clean edges. Old colonies may present a nucleated appearance. No appearance of separate loops of cocci at the periphery of the colonies. No liquefaction.† 6. Streak cultures— (а) Agar (37° C.)—Minute transparent colonies. The colonies are situated so close together as to appear at first sight like a continuous film. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Almost no growth, even after 13 days. 7. Gelatine at 37° C.—Granular cloudiness, with a white granular deposit at the foot of the tube.† 8. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Diffuse cloudiness; at the foot of the tube white viscous growth, which on shaking the tube, rises in the form of a spiral.§ 9. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—In 2 day's acidity ; in 4 days, strong acidity but no clot; 7th day, still no clot; 25th day, still no clot. 10. Remarks—A mouse inoculated subcutaneously with 1 c.c. of a 4 days' broth culture died on the 7th day. Microscopic preparations made from the kidney juice showed tho presence of cocci, sometimes arranged as diplo-cocci, and showing an appearance as of a surrounding capsule. This was not very distinct, however. Agar plate cultures were made from the spleen, and a streptococcus was isolated, which differed somewhat from the one above described. It produced diffuse cloudiness in broth and diffuse granular cloudiness in gelatine at 37° C. Milk was rendered strongly acid and clotted. 1. Name—Streptococcus III. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c, Crossness crude sewage. 3. Date—November 29th, 1898. 4. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. Chains of cocci of variable length; most of them are short. 5. Plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)— (а) Agar (37° C.)—Minute transparent faintly-granular colonies. Most of the colonies are circular with a clean edge. Some are irregular in shape with a ragged edge resembling somewhat Streptococcus I.¶ (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Small transparent colonies, roughly circular in shape with firm edges. The colonies are faintly granular, and show no separate loops of cocci at the periphery. No liquefaction. 6. Streak cultures — (a) Agar (37° C.)—The growth appears at first sight like a continuous delicate film, but is in reality composed of numerous minute transparent and separate colonies. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Colonies are somewhat large for a streptococcus : they are roughly circular in shape, and have a granular appearance. No liquefaction. 7. Gelatine at 37° C.—Granular cloudiness at the foot of the tube. Throughout the medium granular cloudiness and slight diffuse cloudiness as well. 8. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Diffuse cloudiness throughout the medium. 9. Litmus milk cultures—Acidity, but no clot in 24 hours. Later, strong acid but no clot (14th day). 10. Remarks—1 c.c. of a 2 days' broth culture injected subcutaneously in a mouse produced no apparent effect. 1. Name—Streptococcus TV. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c., effluent from 4 ft. coke-bed at Crossness. 3. Date—November 29th, 1898. 4. Morphology—Stains by Gram's method. Chains of cocci of variable length ; usually short, however. 5. Plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)— (a) Agar (37° C.)—Colonies very similar to Streptococcus III. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—As practically no growth occurred in gelatine streak cultures, no gelatine plates were made. 6. Streak cultures— (a) Agar (37° C.)—Growth resembles both Streptococcus I. and Streptococcus III. (b) Gelatine (20° C.) —Practically no growth, even after 13 days. 7. Gelatine at 37° C.—Granular deposit at foot of tube and granular cloudiness throughout the medium, but no diffuse cloudiness.|| 8. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Diffuse cloudiness. Deposit at the foot of the tube coherent in masses unlike Streptococcus III. 9. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—Distinct acidity, but no clot (11th day). 10. Remarks—1 c.c. of a 2 days' broth culture injected subcutaneously in a mouse. The mouse died on 9th day. Cover glass specimens made from kidney juice, peritoneal fluid, &c., showed the presence of cocci and diplococci (appearance suggestive of surrounding capsule, but not very distinct). Agar plate cultures were made from the organs, but the plates were crowded with putrefaotive bacteria, and no streptooocci were isolated. 1. Name—Streptococcus V. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c., effluent from 4 ft. coke-bed at Crossness. 3. Date—November 29th, 1898. 4. Morphology—Stains by Gram's method. Short chains and chains of medium length. * Plate IV., fig. A (b). † Plate IV., fig. A (c). J Plate IV., fig. B (c). § Plate IV., fig. B (d). ¶ Plate IV., fig. A (d). || Plate IV., fig. B (e) 63 5. Plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)— (a) Agar (37° C.)—Appearances very similar to Streptococcus III., i.e., some colonies circular and granular with clean edges; others more or less irregular in shape with ragged edges. Apparently, however, fewer colonies of irregular shape and ragged edges than in the cases of Streptococci III. and IV. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—As there was practically no growth in gelatine streak cultures, no gelatine plate cultures were made. 6. Streak cultures— (а) Agar (37° C.)—Growth somewhat similar in appearance to Streptococcus III. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Practically no growth (13th day). 7. Gelatine at 37° C.—Appearance very like Streptococcus III. 8. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Diffuse cloudiness. 9. Litmus milk cultures—Distinct acidity, but no clot (11th day). 1. Name—Streptococcus VI. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c., effluent from 4 ft. coke-bed at Crossness. 3. Date—November 29th, 1898. 4. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. Chains of cocci of variable length, but usually short. 5. Plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)— (a) Agar (37° C.)—Small transparent granular colonies, usually circular in shape. Most of the colonies have a firm edge, but in some of them the edge has a ragged appearance. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—No record. 6. Streak cultures— (а) Agar (37° C.)—The growth resembles Streptococcus I. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—By the 13th day the colonies have attained a fair size: they are granular, and at the edge have a lobed and fissured appearance. The colonies are white, but towards the centre they are yellowish-white in colour. No liquefaction. 7. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Diffuse cloudiness; at the foot of the tube white viscous growth, which on shaking the tube rises in the form of a spiral. 8. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—Very slight acidity, no clot (10th day). 1. Name—Streptococcus VII. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c., effluent from 4 ft. coke-bed at Crossness. 3. Bate—November 29th, 1898. 4. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. Chains of cocci of variable length, but usually short. 5. Plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)— (a) Agar (37° C.)—Small more or less circular colonies, transparent and granular. Most of the colonies have a firm edge, but in others the edge is broken up and uneven in character. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—As there was practically no growth in gelatine streak cultures (13th day at 20° C.), no gelatine plate cultures were made. 6. Streak cultures— (a) Agar (37° C.)—No record. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Practically no growth (13th day at 20° C.). 7. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Some diffuse cloudiness, and at the foot of the tube granular masses as in Streptococcus I. 8. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—Slight acidity, but no clot (10th day). 1. Name—Streptococcus VIII. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c., effluent from 6 ft. primary coke-bed at Crossness. 3. Date—December 9th, 1898. 4. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. Chains of cocci of variable length. 5. Agar plate cultures (37° C.) (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)—Small transparent granular colonies with firm edges and roughly circular in shape. 6. Streak cultures— (a) Agar (37° C.)—The growth appears as a thin transparent greyish-white film, which on close examination is seen to be made up of minute separate colonies. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Colonies are transparent and granular-looking. No liquefaction (13th day). 7. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Diffuse cloudiness; at the foot of the tube a white deposit, which rises in the form of a spiral on shaking the tube. 8. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—Strong acidity, but no clot (11th day). 9. Remarks—1 c.c. of broth culture injected subcutaneously into a guinea-pig. The animal remained apparently unaffected. 1. Name—Streptococcus IX. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c., effluent from 6 ft. secondary coke-bed at Crossness. 3. Date—December 15th, 1898. 4. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. Chains of cooci usually short, but some of medium length. 5. Agar plate cultures, 37° C. (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)—The majority of the colonies are circular in shape with firm edges. They are small, granular and transparent looking. 6. Streak cultures— (а) Agar (37° C.)—The growth at first sight looks like a continuous white film, but on close inspection it is seen to be made up of numerous separate minute transparent colonies. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Minute transparent colonies, more or less circular in shape. No liquefaction. 64 7. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Diffuse cloudiness; white deposit, at the foot of the tube; on shaking the tube deposit rises in the form of a spiral. 8. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—Feeble acidity in two days. Later, distinct acidity, but no clot (11th day). 9. Remarks—1 c.c. of a 24 hours' (at 37° C.) broth culture injected subcutaneously in a mouse. The mouse died on the 5th day. Cocci present in juice of spleen and kidneys. From the spleen a pure culture of a streptococcus was obtained, forming chains of medium length, and which differed somewhat from the above. In broth the fluid remained clear, and at the foot of the tube the growth occurred as a white conglomerate mass. In gelatine at 37° C. very slight diffuse cloudiness, and at the foot of tube a loose flocculent cloudy growth. In gelatine plate cultures, colonies irregular in shape with uneven edge, wavy granulation well marked. 1. Name—Streptococcus X. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c., effluent from 6 ft. secondary coke-bed at Crossness. 3. Date—December 15th, 1898. 4. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. Chains of cocci of medium length.* 5. Agar plate culture, 37° C. (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)—Irregularly-shaped colonies with broken up edge. Transparent with wavy granulation, and at edge loops of cocci can be made out.t 6. Streak cultures— (а) Agar (37° C.)—The growth is made up of numerous minute separate transparent colonies which at first sight appears like a continuous filmy growth. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—By the 13th day colonies of varying size. They are very irregular in shape, with lobed and fissured borders and delicate filamentous extensions like fine seaweed. The colonies are white, but towards centre the colour is yellowish-white. 7. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Diffuse cloudiness; at foot of tube white viscous deposit which on shaking the tube rises in spiral form. 8. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—In two days distinct acidity, but no clot; 11th day still no clot. 1. Name—Streptococcus XI. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c., Crossness crude sewage. 3. Date—December 15th, 1898. 4. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. Chains of cocci of variable length, but usually short. 5. Plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)— (a) Agar (37° C.)—Most of the colonies minute, transparent and granular with firm edge. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—The majority of the colonies are nearly circular in shape : they are transparent looking and faintly granular with firm edge. No liquefaction.§ 6. Streak cultures— (а) Agar (37° C.)—The growth at first sight appears like a continuous film, but is really made up of separate minute transparent colonies. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Small transparent faintly granular colonies. No liquefaction (13th day). 7. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Diffuse cloudiness ; at the foot of the tube viscous white deposit, which on shaking the tube rises in the form of a spiral. 8. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—No visible change, even after 11 days' incubation. 1. Name—Streptococcus XII. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c.. Crossness crude sewage. 3. Date—December 15th, 1898. 4. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. A streptococcus forming very short chains. 5. Plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular) — (а) Agar (37° C.)—Small circular colonies with firm edge, transparent and granular looking. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—The colonies are usually circular: they are faintly granular and transparent looking. The edge is clean. No liquefaction.¶ 6. Streak cultures— (a) Agar (37° C.)—The colonies are rather large for a streptococcus; they have a granular and transparent appearance. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—The mass of the growth appears as a continuous film ; but at the edge and upper portion of the streak the colonies are separate and are small with a granular transparent appearance. No liquefaction. 7. Gelatine at 37° C.—A granular white deposit forms at the foot of the tube, and the gelatine throughout is full of minute granular specks. 8. Broth cultures (37° C.)—The broth is clear, but on sides of tube white cirrhus-like growth, and at foot of tube viscous white conglomerate mass. 9. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—Slight acidity, but no clot (11th day). 1. Name—Streptococcus XIII. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c., Crossness crude sewage. 3. Date—December 15th, 1898. 4. Morpholoyy—Stains well by Gram's method. It was difficult to determine whether this microbe was a streptococcus or a staphylococcus. Finally, it was classed as a streptococcus. * Plate I., fig. 1. † Plate IV., fig. A (e). § Plate IV., fig. A (f). ¶ Plate IV., fig. A (g). 65 5. Plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)— (а) Agar (37° C.)—The large colonies are roughly circular' in shape and the smaller ones irregular. Wavy granulation is well marked, and at the edge of the colonies separate loops of cocci can be made out. The colonies are small and transparent-looking.* (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—The colonies are very irregular in shape, and at the edge loops of cocci may be made out. They are small and transparent, and show a coarse wavy granulation.† 6. Streak cultures— (а) Agar (37° C.)—The growth is composed of separate colonies which are transparent and granular-looking, and are rather large for a streptococcus. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—By the 13th day the colonies have attained a fair size ; they are irregular in shape and tend to run into each other. No liquefaction. 7. Gelatine at 37° C.—Resemble Streptococcus XII. 8. Broth cultures (37° C.)—The cloudiness is not well marked and is somewhat granular in character. On shaking the tube gently viscous white masses with cirrhus-like extensions rise from the foot and float throughout the liquid. 9. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—Slight acidity, but no clot (15th day). 10. Potato cultures (37° C.)—No visible growth (8th day). 1. Name—Streptococcus XIV. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c., Crossness crude sewage. 3. Date—December 15th, 1898. 4. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. The chains are short and tend to cohere in masses. The cells are somewhat irregular in shape. ft. Plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular) — (a) Agar (37° C.)—The colonies are small, nearly circular in shape, with a fairly firm edge. They are granular and transparent-looking. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—The colonies are roughly circular in shape. Wavy granulation is well marked. The edge may have a slightly ragged appearance, but no separate loops of cocci can be made out. No liquefaction.§ 6. Streak cultures— (a) Agar (37° C.)—The colonies are separate, granular and transparent-looking, but are of rather a large size for a streptococcus. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Resembles Streptococcus XII. No liquefaction (13th day). 7. Gelatine at 37° C.—Resembles Streptococcus XII. 8. Broth cultures (37° C.)—The broth remains nearly transparent. At the foot of the tube the growth collects as a viscous white mass. 9. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—Distinct acidity, but no clot (11th day). 1. Name—Streptococcus XV. 2. Source—1/1000 c. c., Crossness crude sewage. 3. Date—December 21st, 1898. 4. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. Chains of cocci are usually short, but some are of medium length. 5. Plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)— (a) Agar (37° C.)—Small, transparent, circular, granular colonies with firm edge. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Small colonies of circular shape and with clean edge. They may present a nucleated appearance. They are granular and transparent-looking. No liquefaction. 6. Streak cultures— (a) Agar (37° C.)—A barely visible white film, which on close observation is seen to be made up of separate colonies (minute and transparent-looking). (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Resembles somewhat Streptococcus XII. No liquefaction (13th day). 7. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Diffuse cloudiness. At the foot of the tube a white viscous deposit, which on shaking the tube rises in the form of a spiral. 8. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—In two days, distinct acid but no clot; 5th day, ditto; 11th day, ditto. 9. Eemarks—1 c.c. of a 24 hours' broth culture (37° C.) injected subcutaneously into a mouse. The mouse died on the 5th day. Microscopic preparations were made from the peritoneal fluid, &c. Cocci were present, but also many putrefactive •bacilli. Agar plates made from the spleen were overgrown with putrefactive organisms, and no streptococci could be isolated. 1. Name—Streptococcus XVI. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c., effluent from 4 ft. coke-bed at Crossness. 3. Date—December 21st, 1898. 4. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. Long chains of cocci matted together in masses. 5. Plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)— (а) Agar (37° C.)—Minute transparent colonies, usually of circular shape, and showing wavy granulation. No separate loops of cocci at periphery. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Small, circular, transparent and granular-looking colonies. No liquefaction. 6. Streak cultures— (а) Agar (37° C.)—Thin, delicate film, which on close examination is seen to be made up of minute separate colonies. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Resembles Streptococcus X. 7. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Broth remains perfectly transparent. At foot of tube white conglomerate mass. 8. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—Second day, no visible change; 5th day, slight acidity, but no clot. Later, acidity more decided. No clot 11th day. * Plate IV., fig. A (h). † Plate IV., fig. A (i). § Plate IV., fig. A (j). [9] 66 1. Name—Streptococcus XVII. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c., effluent from 4 ft. coke-bed at Crossness. 3. Date—December 21st, 1898. 4. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. Chains of cocci short. The cells tend to cohere in masses simulating a staphylococcus. 5. Plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)— (а) Agar (37° C.)—Small, granular and transparent-looking colonies, nearly circular in shape. The edge of the colonies has a ragged appearance, but no separate loops of cocci can be made out. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Minute colonies of circular shape, showing faint granulation. The colonies are transparent-looking and some have a nucleated appearance. The edge is firm and no separate loops of cocci are visible. No liquefaction. 6. Streak cultures— (а) Agar (37° C.)—The growth presents no special characters worthy of note. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Resembles somewhat Streptococcus XII. No liquefaction. 7. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Broth remains quite transparent. On sides of tube cirrhus-like, streaky, white growth. At foot of tube, viscous white deposit.* 8. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—In two days, distinct acid, but no clot; 5th day, ditto; lltli day, ditto. 1. Name—Streptococcus XVIII. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c., Crossness crude sewage. 3. Date—December 21st, 1898. 4. Morphology —Stains well by Gram's method. Short to medium chains. 5. Plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)— (а) Agar (37° C.)—Colonies circular with firm edge; transparent and faintly granular. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Most of the colonies seem to be made up of two portions, a granular, irregularly-shaped, darker portion, and a more transparent and larger portion, which is less granular. Some of the colonies, however, appeared to be composed of a collection of delicate loops like S. Longus type. No liquefaction.† 6. Streak cultures— (a) Agar (37° C.)—Resembles somewhat Streptococcus XV. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—On the 13th day the growth resembled Streptococcus XII., but in a few places delicate filamentous extensions like fine seaweed may be seen. No liquefaction. 7. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Diffuse cloudiness, and at foot of tube viscous white deposit, which on shaking the tube rises in the form of a spiral. 8. Litmus milk cultures—No visible change, even after 11 days' incubation. 1. Name—Streptococcus XIX. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c., effluent from the primary coarse bed (series A) at Barking. 3. Date—November 1st, 1899. 4. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. The chains of cocci are of medium length.§ 5. Plate culiures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular) — (a) Agar (37° C.)—Irregularly-shaped, transparent colonies, showing well-marked wavy granulation. At the edge of some of the colonies separate loops of cocci are clearly visible. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Small transparent colonies, showing faint wavy granulation. Usually circular in shape with clean edge. No liquefaction. 6. Streak cultures— (a) Agar (37° C.)—No record. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Minute, transparent, circular colonies. No liquefaction. 7. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Some diffuse cloudiness, but granular cloudiness as well. On sides of tube, streaky, cirrhus-like, white growth. 8. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—In two days strong acid, but no clot; 4th day, ditto. 9. Remarks—A mouse inoculated subcutaneously with 1 c.c. broth culture remained apparently unaffected. 1. Name—Streptococcus XX. 2. Source—1/1000 c.c., effluent from the secondary coarse bed (series A) at Barking. 3. Date—November 1st, 1899. 4. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. Resembles Streptococcus XIX.¶ 5. Plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)— (a) Agar (37° C.)—Minute, transparent colonies, nearly circular in shape with clean edge. Wavy granulation very faint. Some of the colonies are more granular-looking and have a slightly frayed edge. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Resembles Streptococcus XIX. 6. Streak cultures— (a) Agar (37° C.)—No record. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Very similar to Streptococcus XIX., but the colonies are more transparent-looking. 7. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Resembles Streptococcus XIX. 8. Litmus milk cultures—In two days, strong acid but no clot; 4th day, strong acid but no clot. 9. Remarks—A mouse inoculated subcutaneously with 1 c.c. of a broth culture was apparently unaffected. * Plate IV., fig. B (f). § Plate I., fig. 2. †Plate IV., fig. A (k. ¶ late I., fig. 3. 67 1. Name—Streptococcus XXI. ' 2. Source—1/1000 c.c., Barking crude sewage. 3. Date—November 1st, 1899. 4. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. The chains of cocci are usually short, but occasionally long chains may be seen.* 5. Plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)— (a) Agar (37° C.)—Minute, transparent, faintly granular-looking colonies with clean edge. Usually circular in shape. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Small transparent colonies showing only very faint granulation. Colonies are circular with slightly wavy border. No liquefaction. 6. Streak cultures— (a) Agar (37° C.)—No record. (b) Gelatine (20° C.)—Resembles Streptococcus XIX. and XX., but the colonies are smaller and more transparent-looking. 7. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Abundant diffuse cloudiness; at foot of tube viscous white deposit. 8. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—Strong acidity, but no clot. 9. Remarks—A mouse inoculated subcutaneously with 1 c.c. of broth culture was apparently unaffected. General Summary of the above results, as regards the presence of Streptococci in the Crude Sewage and in the Effluents from the Bacterial Beds. Name—It is apparent that many of the streptococci resembled S. Brevis and some S. Longus. Moreover, certain of them, if they had been isolated from a septic case in the human subject, would almost certainly have been classed as S. Pyogenes. In the present state of our knowledge, it has been thought best to merely register them for descriptive purposes as Streptococcus I., II., III., &c. Of course, many of them resembled each other so closely as to suggest identity of species or, at all events, close kinship. But the results seem to indicate that streptococci are not only more numerous, but that the number of different species is much greater than has hitherto been supposed. A great many microbes isolated from crude sewage and effluents from bacterial beds are not included in the above list, because, on studying their morphological and biological characters, they seemed to resemble staphylococci (a class of germs as numerous in sewage apparently as streptococci, but probably of relatively less importance) more closely than streptococci. The line, however, dividing these two classes of germs is by no means a sharp one, and it is possible that a few microbes have been included in the above list which really ought to be placed in an intermediate position, i.e., between the streptococci and staphylococci. Source—In each case the streptococci were isolated from as minute a quantity as 1/1000 c.c. of Barking or Crossness crude sewage, or the effluents from the coke-beds at Barking and Crossness. There did not appear to be any significant alteration in the number of streptococci as the result of the bacterial treatment of the raw sewage. Date—It is to be noted that the earlier records extend back as far as November, 1898. Morphology—All stained well by Gram's method. The majority formed short chains, but in some the chains were of medium length, and in a few the chains were long. Sometimes the chains cohered together forming masses, thus simulating staphylococci. In such cases the biological characters of the microbes were closely studied before coming to a definite conclusion. [As a rule staphylococci grow more rapidly and produce a much more luxuriant and opaque growth on the surface of gelatine and agar than streptococci. Further, staphylococci not uncommonly liquefy gelatine. On the other hand, streptococci do not liquefy gelatine, and as a rule grow very slowly and form minute and transparent-looking colonies in agar and gelatine cultures.] Temperature—It is to be noted that all the streptococci grew well at blood heat. Agar and gelatine cultures—In most cases the colonies were very small, circular in shape, transparent-looking, and faintly granular, with ,a clean edge. Sometimes, however, the colonies showed coarse, wavy granulation, and were irregular in shape with a frayed edge, or showed at the periphery separate loops of cocci. It must not be lost sight of that some of the streptococci showed little or no appreciable growth when incubated at 20° C. for 13 days in gelatine streak culture. Broth cultures—About 50 per cent. produced diffuse cloudiness with a viscous white deposit at the foot of the tube. In about 20 per cent. the broth remained quite clear, the growth appearing either as a conglomerate mass or else as masses with cirrhus-like extensions. In about 15 per cent. the cloudiness was granular in character with streaky cirrhus-like growths. In about 10 per cent. there was diffuse cloudiness * Plate I., fig. 4. 68 with a deposit at the foot of the tube coherent in granular masses. In about 5 per cent. a viscous white mass collected at the foot of the tube, the broth remaining transparent. Litmus milk cultures—About 85 per cent. produced acidity but no clot. About 5 per cent. showed acidity and clot. About 10 per cent. produced no visible change. Experiments on animals—Only a limited number of experiments were carried out. Sometimes a pathogenic effect was produced in mice, but most of the animals were apparently unaffected. An absence of pathogenic effect as regards mice does not necessarily imply freedom from disease-producing capability in respect of other animals. Moreover, some of these streptococci may have been highly virulent in the past, but have lost their pathogenic action. It is conceivable that these same streptococci might under certain conditions regain their full virulence. It is apparent from these results that the type of streptococcus which is especially abundant in sewage is one presenting the following characters. For convenience of description it is permissible to call this microbe "Sewage Streptococcus." The following is a brief description of its chief morphological and biological characters — 1. Name—" Sewage Streptococcus." 2. Source—Barking and Crossness crude sewage and effluents from bacterial coke-beds. 3. Abundance—Usually more than 1,000 per c.c. of crude sewage and effluents. 4. Temperature—Grows well at blood heat. 5. Morphology—Stains well by Gram's method. The chains of cocci are usually short. 6. Agar and gelatine plate cultures (under a low power, Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular)—The colonies are small and transparent. They are nearly circular in shape with a clean edge. The granulation is faint. The colonies in agar are usually more granular and darker looking than in gelatine cultures. The gelatine is not liquefied. 7. Streak cultures (agar at 37° C. and gelatine at 20° C.)—The growth usually shows itself as a delicate white film, which on close observation is seen to be made up of numerous separate minute transparent-looking colonies. The gelatine is not liquefied. 8. Broth cultures (37° C.)—Abundant diffuse cloudiness. On gently shaking the tube a viscous white deposit rises from the foot of the tube in a spiral form. 9. Litmus milk cultures (37° C.)—Acidity, but usually no clot. 10. Remarks—Probably non-pathogenic to mice. It will be understood that the above is a description not of a special micro-organism, but of the type of streptococcus most commonly present in crude sewage and in the effluents from the coke-beds. V.—EXPERIMENTS ON ANIMALS. Injection of Crude Sewage and Effluents into Guinea-Pigs. The conclusions which have been arrived at as a result of the above experiments may bo briefly stated as follows:— I.—The subcutaneous injection of Barking and Crossness crude sewage into guinea-pigs (about 1—3 c.c. per 200 grammes weight) always produces a local reaction, and usually death in from 24 to 72 hours. If the guinea-pigs do not die within the first few days, although suppuration and ulceration may set in at the site of the inoculation, the animal usually eventually recovers completely. Sometimes the effluents from the coke-beds are more pathogenic than the raw sewage itself, but as a rule a somewhat larger dose of effluent is required to produce a fatal result. If the crude sewage or effluent be injected intra-peritoneally instead of subcutaneously, the animals usually die more quickly, and succumb to a smaller dose. There are, however, exceptions to this rule. II.—If the injection of the crude sewage or effluent is not followed by fatal results within the first few days, the animal may occasionally die after the lapse of some weeks time, and on post-mortem examination show appearances simulating tubercle infection; but on closer study it will be found that death was really due to pseudo-tuberculosis (B. pseudo-tuberculosis of Pfeiffer). [It will be remembered, however, that in one case a guinea-pig inoculated with a portion of coke-deposit died from true tuberculosis. Supplement to Second Report.] III.—When the animal dies rapidly (24—72 hours), virulent microbes, belonging to the class of B. coli and B. proteus, may readily be isolated from the blood or tissues of the animal. IV.—If the crude sewage or effluent be previously heated to 100° C. for one hour, large doses may be injected without producing a fatal result. This would seem to show that the pathogenic effect of the sewage and effluents is not directly traceable to such of the intra-cellular and extra-cellular products of microbes as are capable of resisting this temperature. [This temperature (100° C.) would change poisonous active albuminoids to non-poisonons passive albuminoids, and would also decompose enzymes ; but it would not destroy the poisonous substances resulting from the decomposition of putrefying albuminoids known as ptomaines.] V.—If the crude sewage or effluent be previously heated to 80° C. for ten minutes, a pathogenic effect may still be produced; but a much larger dose is usually required than where the liquid has not been so heated. Here death, when it occurs, is probably due to B. enteritidis 69 sporogenes, or, it may be, to anaerobic micro-organisms of the malignant oedema group. These results would seem to indicate that the pathogenic effect of sewage and sewage effluents is not usually or primarily due to micro-organisms present in spore form, since a much larger dose is required when the liquid has been previously heated to 80° C.; unless, indeed, these microbes possess an increased pathogenic power in the presence of other germs not present as spores. VI.—If the crude sewage or effluent be filtered through a sterilised Pasteur's filter, very large doses of the filtrate fail to produce a pathogenic effect. This would seem to prove that it is not the extra-cellular products of the bacteria which by themselves produce the pathogenic result. But it is conceivable that filtration under the above conditions may render the bacterial products harmless where before they were noxious. It is not proposed to give in detail the numerous experiments which have been carried out on animals; but a few experiments may be given by way of illustration. February '22nd, 1899. (а) 1 c.c. Barking crude sewage injected subcutaneously in guinea-pig (called g.p. i). (b) 1 c.c. effluent from Barking fine ragstone-bed injected subcutaneously in guinea-pig (called g.p. ii). (c) 1 c.c. effluent from Barking fine coke-bed injected subcutaneously in guinea-pig (called g.p. iii). February 23rd—g.p. i poorly, with swollen belly; g.p. ii and iii fairly lively, with less abdominal swelling. February 24th—g.p. i, moribund; g.p. ii and iii, in about the same condition as on the preceding day. February 25th—g.p. i dead. On post-mortem examination, showed thickening of abdominal wall and oedema, but not much sanguineous exudation. March 1st—g.p. ii and iii quite lively and well, except that g.p. ii had some abdominal ulceration. The animals (g.p. ii and iii) eventually recovered completely from the effects of the injection. March 1st, 1899. (a) 1 c.c. Crossness crude sewage injected intra-peritoneally in guinea-pig (called g.p. i). (b) 1 c.c. Crossness effluent from B single coke-bed injected intra-peritoneally in guinea-pig (called g.p. ii). March 2nd—g.p. ii moribund, so killed. March 3rd—g.p. i dead. March 29th, 1899. (a) 1 c.c. Barking effluent coarse ragstone-bed injected subcutaneously in guinea-pig (called g.p. i). (b) 1 c.c. Barking effluent coarse coke-bed injected subcutaneously in guinea-pig (called g.p. ii). (c) 1 c.c. Barking effluent fine ragstone-bed injected subcutaneously in guinea-pig (called g.p. iii). (d) 1 c.c. Barking effluent fine coke-bed injected subcutaneously in guinea-pig (called g.p. iv). (e) 1 c.c. Crossness effluent 13 ft. coke-bed injected subcutaneously in guinea-pig (called g.p. v). April 1st—g.p. i and g.p. iv dead. April 3rd—g.p. iii dead. April 4th—g.p. ii and g.p. v apparently quite recovered from effects of the inoculation. April 27th, 1899. (а) 1 c.c. Crossness crude sewage injected subcutaneously in guinea-pig (called g.p. i). (b) 1 c.c. Crossness effluent from 13 ft. coke-bed injected intra-peritoneally in guinea-pig (called g.p. ii). (c) 1 c.c. Crossness crude sewage injected intra-peritoneally in guinea-pig (called g.p. iii). (d) 1 c.c. Crossness effluent from 13 ft. coke-bed injected subcutaneously in guinea-pig (called g.p. iv). April 29th—g.p. i dead. May 1st—g.p. iii dead. May 4th—g.p. iv. dead, g.p. ii apparently quite recovered from the effects of injection. November 28th, 1899. (a) Barking effluent from B 1 coke-bed, heated 80° C. for ten minutes. Two c.c. injected subcutaneously in guinea-pig (called g.p. i). The animal remained apparently unaffected. December 1st, 1899. (а) 3 c.c. Barking crude sewage injected subcutaneously in guinea-pig (called g.p. i). (b) Same as (a), but crude sewage previously heated to 80° C. for ten minutes (called g.p. ii) The dose was apparently too large, as both g.p. i and g.p. ii died, but the former died first. December 12th, 1899. (а) 1 c.c. Barking crude sewage injected subcutaneously in guinea-pig (called g.p. i). (b) Same as (a), but sewage previously heated to 80° C. for ten minutes, and 2 c.c. injected (called g.p. ii). (c) Same as (a), but sewage previously heated to 100° C. for one hour, and 4 c.c. injected (called g.p. iii). (d) Same as (a), bat sewage first filtered through a sterilised Pasteur's filter, and 10 c.c. of the filtrate injected. All the animals recovered from the effects of the injection except g.p. i. 70 VI.—FINAL CONCLUSIONS. Before giving the final conclusions from the biological point of view as to the value of the bacterial process in use at Barking and Crossness for treating London crude sewage, it is essential to first make some remarks of a general and introductory character; otherwise a totally erroneous impression might be formed, and it might even be considered that the conclusions arrived at after two years' close study of the subject were of such a nature as to condemn the process. Thus, if no note were taken of the chemical results and the practical side of the question and the bacteriological results were considered by themselves, and not read as they ought to be side by side with the chemical data, an impression might be gained which was not intended, and which was quite remote from the truth. Many of the points about to be alluded to have been dealt with in previous Reports, but it is necessary to repeat them here for the reasons which have been stated, I.—GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. The Thames is a tidal river, and the "intakes" for waterworks purposes are situated high up the river and are "cut off" by "locks" from the influence of the sewage discharge at the Outfall Works.* Although the bulk of London sewage is certainly very great the large size of the river Thames must also be considered, as also the proximity of the "Outfalls" to the sea and the huge body of water in the river at high tide. The river water outside the influence of the discharges at the Outfall Works is already polluted and contains practically all the bacteria found in raw sewage. The body of Thames water which may be supposed to be directly affected by the discharge of the effluents at Barking and Crossness is "brackish" and so could hardly be tolerated for drinking purposes even by individuals who are indifferent to the physical characters and biological composition of the water which they drink. The bacterial coke-beds effect a reduction of at least 50, and it may be as much as 80 per cent. in the amount of dissolved oxidisable and putrescible drganic matter in the raw sewage, as compared with 17 per cent. effected by the chemical treatment. The effluents from the coke-beds are apparently non-putrescible. § The suspended matterst in the crude sewage are practically entirely removed as a result of the biological treatment instead of only about 80 per cent. effected by the chemical treatment. And recent experiments seem to show that this result may be obtained without loss of capacity in the coke-beds if the sewage has undergone a previous process of rapid sedimentation. In the biological treatment no chemicals are required, and no offensive sludge is produced.¶ Where an effluent is turned into a stream to be used for drinking purposes, the bacteriological results are manifestly of more importance than the chemical; but when, as in the present case, the river is not a potable one, and is already polluted, the converse probably holds good; i.e., the chemical state of the effluent is of primary, and the biological of secondary importance. In the first case the chief object is to guard against disease, and in the second case the main consideration is to avoid fouling the river with putrescible matters to such an extent as to constitute a grave public nuisance. However desirable it may be to obtain an effluent chemically pure, and, at the same time, bacteriologically above suspicion of danger, a process which leads to the solution of the great mass of suspended matters in the raw sewage, which effects a striking reduction in the amount of putrescible matters, which avoids the use of chemicals and the accumulation of offensive sludge, which yields an apparently non-putrescible effluent, and which is at the same time practicable, is one which presents such singular advantages over chemical treatment, and which produces such satisfactory results in view of all the requirements of the case, that it would be idle to deny its value or attempt to minimise its usefulness simply because it falls short of a standard of absolute perfection. Passing next to considerations which are purely biological in character, the following points are worthy of note. * It is assumed that no contamination of the underground water in the Thames valley takes place as a result of the pollution in the lower reaches of the river affecting distant sources of water supply (e.g., deep wells). If in the future reliable evidence to the contrary should be forthcoming, then the whole question might require reconsideration. §† It may be suggested that further evidence is required to show that an effluent apparently nonputrescible remains so under all conditions, and also that an effluent free, or nearly so, from suspended matter remains permanently in that condition. For it is conceivable that an effluent non-putrescible in itself might yet give rise to a putrescent effect when discharged into a stream, and that substances originally in solution might pass out of solution as the result, perhaps, of secondary degeneration. Nevertheless, from actual experiments carried out by the chemists in charge at the Outfall Works, as well as by observation of the state of the river, this would not seem to take place in the case of the discharge of the effluents at Barking and Crossness into the Thames. ¶ As regards this paragraph and the preceding ones, the Second Report (Division 1, Section 1, No. 5, page 7) may with advantage be consulted. 71 » 2.—BIOLOGICAL CONCLUSIONS. Although the total number of bacteria, the number of spores of aerobic bacteria, the number of liquefying microbes, the number of B. coli and of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes was, on an average, less in the effluents from the coke-beds than in the corresponding samples of crude sewage, the reduction was not well marked, and in some cases the effluents contained more microorganisms than the sewage before treatment. Thus, while the chemical results were always satisfactory, the bacteriological results were usually quite the reverse, because the microbes producing the chemical changes passed through the coke-beds in practically unaltered numbers. [The reasons for this state of things would seem to be that the process itself depends for its success on the vital activity of bacteria; that the fragments of coke are not fine enough to allow of the mechanical separation of the germs ; that the products of the growth of the microbes, while they are self-injurious, are not sufficiently poisonous to destroy their life, although they, doubtless, exercise a restraining influence on the extent of the multiplication; and finally, that purification is not carried sufficiently far to exhaust all the assimilable pabulum in the liquid. It has been pointed out in previous Reports that B. coli is an aerobic facultative anaerobic microbe of intestinal origin which may be pathogenic, and that B. enteritidis sporogenes (Klein) is a pathogenic anaerobe typical of excremental matters which appears to be causally related to certain cases of acute diarrhoea in the human subject, and whose cultures are extremely virulent to guinea-pigs. Both in this and in previous Reports it has been stated that B. coli and the spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes are present in the effluents from the coke-beds in numbers usually exceeding 100,000 and 100 respectively per c.c. Further, it has been shown that a proteus-like germ ("sewage proteus") is present in abundance in the effluents—usually more than 100,000 per c.c. Some strains of this microbe are very virulent to guinea-pigs. Lastly, a highly virulent strain of B. pyocaneus has been isolated from so minute an amount as 1/1000 c.c. a Barking coke-bed effluent. Further, the cultures made from the crude sewage and effluents were frequently compared side by side, yet no distinct differences could be made out between the two sets of cultures as regards the species of microbes. [Of course this does not preclude the possibility of there having been a failure to detect points of difference not easily appreciable even to the trained observer. Still less does it mean that no selective process was in operation in the coke-beds. It is known that certain microbes, e.g., the nitrifying germs, do not grow on the media ordinarily used by bacteriologists; and no doubt, as time goes on, the list will be greatly increased. The mere fact that; the raw sewage contained little or no oxidised nitrogen while the effluents contained nitrites and nitrates, implies that nitrification was in progress, and doubtless the nitrifying germs were not only stored in the cokebeds, but were present in the effluents in greater number than in the raw sewage. Indeed, certain experiments which were carried out in this connection, but which are of too preliminary a character to merit inclusion in this Report, seemed to support this view.] In the present Report records are given showing that streptococci presumably of intestinal origin pass through the coke-beds in practically unaltered numbers, and may be isolated from 1/1000 c.c. or less of the effluents. And reasons are given which suggest somewhat strongly that if streptococci can resist the biological processes at work in the coke-beds there is small ground for believing that other germs of a dangerous kind, e.g., the typhoid bacillus, will be destroyed. Further, it has been stated in this Report that although the products of the bacteria in the effluents are not fatal even when large doses are injected subcutaneously into guinea-pigs, the effluents plus the contained bacteria are decidedly pathogenic and do not indeed differ in this respect materially from the raw sewage. [A local reaction is always observed, and abscess formation and ulceration frequently result from the injections, although they do not necessarily prove fatal. When death occurs rapidly, the fatal result seems to be usually due to virulent B. coli or B. proteus or B. enteritidis sporogenes, or to microbes more or less closely allied to these germs. Doubtless, however, other microbes are also concerned in producing a pathogenic effect. Sometimes the animal apparently recovers, but eventually dies from pseudo-tuberculosis (B. pseudo tuberculosis.)] In the Supplement to the Second Report it was shown that the deposit accumulating on the coke in the bacterial beds contained the spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes in great abundance, and also that two mice inoculated subcutaneously each with a small portion of the deposit died with all the characteristic symptoms of tetanus. Further, "acid-fast bacteria were present in considerable numbers in the deposit, and they were also found in the crude sewage and effluents— particularly in the latter. The inference would seem to be that the "acid-fast" bacteria are stored in the coke-beds, and are habitually or occasionally washed away in the effluents. [Although many of these "acid-fast" bacteria could not with certainty be morphologically distinguished from the tubercle bacillus, it was not claimed that they were necessarily the microbe of tuberculosis, alive or dead, virulent or non-virulent. But it was pointed out as a significant fact that in one instance a guinea-pig inoculated with the deposit from a bacterial bed (not, however, one at Barking or Crossness), especially rich in these "acid-fast" bacteria, did die from tubercular infection, and that sections of its organs when appropriately stained showed the presence of numerous tubercle bacilli.] In view of these results, only one conclusion seems possible, namely, that however satisfactory the process may be from the chemical and practical point of view, the effluents from the bacterial beds cannot be reasonably assumed to be more safe in their possible relation to disease than raw sewage slightly diluted, bud otherwise unaltered in its bacterial composition. VII —ADDENDA. 1.—THE VITALITY OF THE CHOLERA BACILLUS, B. PRODIGIOSUS, AND STAPHYLOCOCCUS PYOGENES AUREUS IN CROSSNESS CRUDE SEWAGE. The sewage was not sterilised, as sterilisation greatly alters its chemical composition, and the object of the experiments was to ascertain broadly whether these germs survive for any length of time in competition with the numerous other micro-organisms normally present in raw sewage. (a) Vitality of the Cholera Bacillus in Crossness Crude Sewage. Experiment 1, October 24th,, 1898. 10 c.c. of Crossness crude sewage were poured into a sterile test-tube, and the tube was plugged with sterile wool. The contents of the tube were next inoculated with a platinum loopful of the cholera bacillus taken from a young gelatine culture. The tube containing the. crude sewage († the cholera bacillus) was kept in a dark cupboard at the room temperature. In seeking to determine the viability of Koch's vibrio the following plan was adopted. From time to time a loopful of the sewage was transferred to a tube containing sterile peptone solution (peptone 1 per cent; NaCl 0.5 per cent.). The peptone tube was incubated at 37° C., and in less than twenty-four hours a loopful of the liquid was taken from near the surface and microscopic stained cover-glass preparations were made. A number of such preparations were made, and these were examined microscopically for the presence of Koch's vibrio. The results obtained are shown in the following Table— Date of inoculation of peptone solution. Date of examination of peptone culture. Descriptive number of cultures. Remarks. Results of the examination of the peptone cultures. 1898. 1898. October 24 (Immediately after the inoculation of the sewage with Koch's vibrio.) October 25 (1) Cholera vibrios present in great abundance and almost in pure culture. October 25 26 (2) Vibrios could only be found after prolonged searching. „ 26 27 (3) No difficulty was experienced in finding vibrios. „ 27 28 (4) Vibrios present in abundance. „ 28 29 (5) A positive result was with difficulty obtained. „ 31 November 1 (6) „ „ November 1 2 (7) „ „ „ 2 3 (8) „ „ „ 3 4 (9) „ „ „ 4 5 (10) A doubtfully positive result. „ 9 10 (11) Only a few vibrios, but these were typical. „18 19 (12) Many vibrios, but most of them larger (longer and thicker) than normal. „ 24 25 (l3) ? Positive. December 5 December 6 (14) Quite negative. It is to be noted that in culture (1) Koch's vibrio was present almost in pure culture, but in (2) it was demonstrated only with great difficulty. In (3) and (4), however, vibrios were present in abundance. In (5), (6), (7), (8), (9) cultures a positive result was arrived at only with great difficulty, and in (10) the result was only doubtfully positive. In (11) and (12) cultures the diagnosis was more certain, but in the latter culture the microbe seemed to have become slightly altered, morphologically. In (13) there was a considerable element of doubt, and in (14) the result was quite negative. The apparent rise and fall in the vitality of the vibrio during the progress of the experiment is of interest. It is evident that the cholera bacillus is able to exist in Crossness crude sewage in competition with the numerous other microbes also present and under laboratory conditions of experiment for a considerable time. Experiment 2, October 26th, 1898. The experiment was a repetition of experiment 1, except that a vastly greater number of cholera germs were added to the sewage, viz., the whole of the surface growth from an oblique agar culture incubated at 37° C. for three days. Indeed, the number of vibrios added was greatly in excess of the total number of micro-organisms in the sewage. 73 The results obtained were as follows— Date of inoculation of peptone solution. Date of examination of peptone culture. Descriptive number of cultures. Remarks. Results of the examination of the peptone cultures. 1898. October 26... (Immediately after the inoculation of the sewage with Koch's vibrio.) . 1898. October 27 (1) Cholera vibrios present in great abundance. October 27 „ 28 (2) A positive result was obtained only with difficulty. „ 28 „ 29 (3) Vibrios found without difficulty. „ 31 November 1 (4) „ November „ 1 „ 2 (5) Only a few vibrios could be found. „ 2 „ 3 (6) A positive result was obtained without much difficulty. „ 3 „ 4 (7) Vibrios found without any difficulty. „ 4 „ 5 (8) A positive result was obtained but only after prolonged searching. „ 9 „ 10 (9) The result was negative. „ 18 „19 (10) „ „ „ 24 „ 25 (11) „ „ December 5 December 6 (12) „ „ In this experiment, as in experiment 1, there was a difficulty experienced in finding the cholera bacillus in the peptone culture number (2) made only the day after inoculation. Yet in both experiments no difficulty was experienced in arriving at a positive diagnosis as regards number (3) peptone culture. Notwithstanding the enormous number of vibrios added to the sewage, they appeared to die out much sooner than in the preceding experiment. Speaking in general terms, and dealing with both experiments, it may be said that under the above conditions of experiment the cholera bacillus may lose its vitality in less than a fortnight (experiment 2) or remain viable for nearly four weeks (experiment 1) when added to Crossness crude sewage. (b) Vitality of B. Prodigiosus in Crossness Crude Sewage. Experiment 3, October 24th, 1898. In this experiment 10 c.c. of Crossness crude sewage were inoculated with B. prodigiosus (platinum loopful from a young agar culture). Although this micro-organism is occasionally met with in sewage it is very rare in London raw sewage, and so is to be regarded as being in a sense an intruder. The tube containing the raw sewage (†B. prodigiosus) was kept in a dark cupboard at the room temperature. In seeking to determine the lviability of this microbe in the sewage the following plan was adopted—From time to time a loopful of the sewage (+ B. prodigiosus) was taken and rubbed over the sloping surface of oblique agar tubes. These were kept at the room temperature, and the presence of B. prodigiosus was readily detected by the bright red colour produced by the growth of this microbe in agar cultivations. The results obtained are shown in the following Table— Date of inoculation of the oblique agar tubes. Descriptive number of cultures. Results. gards red growth on oblique agar tubes. 1898. October 24 (Immediately after the inoculation of the sewage with D. prodigiosus). (1) Positive. October 25 (2) „ „ 26 (3) „ „ 27 (4) „ „ 28 (5) „ „ 29 (6) „ „ 31 (7) „ November 1 (8) (only a few colonies). „ 2 (9) „ „ „ 3 (10) „ „ „ 4 (11) „ „ „ 5 (12) „ (only 3 colonies). „ 7 (13) „ (only 1 colony). „ 9 (14) „ „ „ 12 (15) Negtaive „ 14 (16) „ „ 16 (17) „ „ 18 (18) „ „ 25 (19) „ December 3 (20) „ [10] 74 It is to be noted that B. prodigiosus retained its vitality in the crude sewage for sixteen days. Afterwards it could not be found in any of the cultures. During the sixteen days B. prodigiosus remained alive it was noted that whereas at the start an abundant red growth showed itself in the agar cultures towards the end of this period the number of red colonies developing was very small, and in cultures (12), (13), and (14) the number of red growths was only three, one, and one respectively. Speaking in general terms it may be said that the number of B. prodigiosus decreased rather rapidly, and usually each successive culture showed less red growth than the one immediately preceding it. Experiment 4, November 2nd, 1898. This experiment was a repetition of experiment 3, 10 c.c. of Crossness crude sewage being inoculated with a platinum loopful of a recent growth of B. prodigiosus on agar. The results obtained are shown in the following table— Date of inoculation of the oblique agar tubes. Descriptive number of cultures. Results. As regards red growth on oblique agar tubes. 1898. November 2 (Immediately after the inoculation of the sewage with B. prodigiosus.) (1) Positive. November 3 (2) „ „ 7 (3) „ „ 9 (4) „ (only one colony). „ 12 (5) „ „ „ 14 . (6) Negative. „ 16 (7) „ „ 18 (8) „ „ 24 (9) „ December 3 (10) „ In this experiment the B. prodigiosus remained alive for 10 days, but was not discoverable on the 12th, 14th, 16th, 22nd, or 31st day after inoculation. Speaking of both the experiments it may be said that B. prodigiosus either dies or becomes so reduced in numbers as to be no longer capable of being isolated in from about 10 to 16 days in Crossness crude sewage under the above laboratory conditions of experiment. It would seem from these experiments as if the cholera bacillus was capable of existing in sewage for a longer time than the B. prodigiosus. Assuming, of course, that the two different methods used for detecting these microbes were of equal delicacy, which is probably not quite the case. (c) Vitality of Staphylococcus Pyogenes Aureus in Crossness Crude Sewage. Experiment 5, November 9th, 1898. In this experiment 10 c.c. of Crossness crude sewage were inoculated with a platinum loopful of a young agar culture of staphylococcus pyogenes aureus. This pathogenic microbe has been described as being occasionally present in raw sewage. My own experience leads me to believe that it is only very rarely present in sewage. Certainly it is to be regarded as a microbe foreign to the bacterial flora of ordinary sewage. The tube containing the raw sewage († St. pyogenes aureus) was kept in a dark cupboard • at the room temperature. In seeking to determine the viability of this micro-organism in the sewage the following plan was adopted. Prom time to time a loopful of the sewage († St. pyogenes aureus) was taken and rubbed over the sloping surface of oblique agar tubes. These were incubated at 37° C., and the presence of St. pyogenes aureus was readily ascertained by the golden orange-yellow colour produced by the growth of this germ in agar cultures. The results obtained are shown in the following Table— Date of inoculation of the oblique agar tubes. Descriptive number of cultures. Results. As regards presence or absence of characteristic coloured growth of St. pyogenes aureus. 1898. November 9 (Immediately after the inoculation of the sewage with Sf. pynqenes aureus.) (1) Positive (decided growth) November 10 (2) „ „ „ 11 (3) „ „ „ 12 (4) „ „ „ 14 (5) „ „ „ 17 (6) „ „ „ 24 (7) „ „ December 3 (8) „ „ „ 14 (9) Negative. „ 17 (10) Positive (one colony). In cultures made subsequent to December 17th, no colonies of St. pyogenes aureus could be found. 75 It is to be noted that up to the twenty-fourth day after the original inoculation the presence of St. pyogenes aureus was easily demonstrated. But a negative result was obtained in the case of culture (9)—thirty-fifth day. Nevertheless, in culture (10) a single colony was discovered, i.e., on the thirty-eighth day subsequent to inoculation. Later, the microbe was no longer discoverable in cultures made from the sewage. From this experiment it would seem that St. pyogenes aureus is capable of retaining its vitality in Crossness crude sewage for a considerable time. In conclusion, and speaking in general terms of all the experiments, it may be stated that the cholera bacillus (pathogenic), B. prodigiosus (non-pathogenic), and St. Pyogenes aureus (pathogenic) are capable of retaining their vitality in Crossness crude sewage in competition with the very numerous bacteria normally present in the liquid for a considerable time. But it must be insisted upon that the conditions prevailing in laboratory test-tube experiments are widely different from those in operation in biological coke-beds. Nevertheless, and looking at the subject from the point of the epidemiologist, these experiments are far from reassuring, and, indeed, would seem to indicate that the antagonism of the saprophytic bacteria normally present in sewage would not suffice for the destruction of pathogenic species either in the sewers or, later, in the bacterial beds. Since the bacterial beds are purposely constructed so as not to mechanically hold back the suspended matters, and as it is to be feared from these experiments that the biological processes at work in the coke-beds would not rapidly destroy the life, although they might inhibit the multiplication of pathogenic germs accidentally introduced into the crude sewage, the effluents from the beds ought to be regarded as no more safe in their possible relationship to disease than the raw sewage itself. It must be remembered, however, that the number of the pathogenic germs added to the sewage in these experiments was vastly greater than could conceivably take place under natural conditions, and that, notwithstanding the enormous number introduced, there was definite indication of a somewhat rapid decrease in their numbers. For records relating to the passage through the bacterial beds of pathogenic germs habitually or occasionally present in crude sewage reference must be made to other sections of this Report and also to previous Reports. 2.—THE INOCULATION OF THE 13-FOOT COKE-BED AT CROSSNESS WITH A SPECIAL SEWAGE MICROBE. Most observers who have had any practical experience of the so-called biological treatment of sewage are agreed as to the necessity of treating new bacterial beds with small but gradually increasing doses of raw sewage until they have become thoroughly matured. Further, it is generally believed that a mature bed is one which has become by a natural process of selection charged with the special bacteria concerned in the work of purification. By varying the conditions in a number of ways changes, favourable or the reverse, may readily be induced. For example, by overtaxing the coke-beds a change commonly spoken of as "sickening" may set in when the chemical results will no longer be satisfactory. In such a case it may be conjectured that the wrong kind of bacteria have gained the ascendancy. Conversely, by greatly diminishing the amount of sewage to be "treated," a particularly good effluent may often be obtained. Here presumably the special bacteria are able to multiply abundantly and to exercise their specific qualities to the best advantage. Exactly which kind of bacteria are directly beneficial and which act as intruders is not yet clearly known, although the broad fact that putrefactive and nitrifying germs are necessary has long been established. Nor is it properly understood under what conditions the special bacteria should be placed in order to allow them to exercise their beneficial qualities to the best advantage. Bacterial processes so widely different as those which aim at encouraging the growth of aerobic micro-organisms and those which are essentially or largely anaerobic in character, have been put in operation by different workers. And each observer claims for his own process peculiar advantages. But it will be gathered from what has been said that probably all the bacterial processes in practical operation at the present time aim at allowing certain bacteria or groups of bacteria to gain the ascendancy by a natural jorocess of selection. Although this is certainly a rational method of "treating" sewage it is to be thought of that the future of the biological treatment of sewage may possibly lie in the direction of a real or apparent interference with nature's methods. In the absence of absolute knowledge as to the exact conditions under which sewage should be placed so as either in one or a succession of stages to foster the growth of the bacteria directly concerned in the work of purification and to. inhibit the growth of unnecessary or harmful germs it is conceivable that the addition (continuously or intermittently) of pure cultures in large amount of selected microbes might exercise a beneficial effect. Which kinds of bacteria should be added, and under what conditions, cannot safely be affirmed in the present state of our knowledge. The experiments might be conducted so as to aid or abet nature rather than with the object of interfering with or upsetting the natural order of things, and they might occupy several stages. Further, they might be carried out in connection with bacterial beds already for some time in operation or new beds might be sown with special bacteria previous and preparatory to the application of sewage. It is conceivable that they might be divided into two stages—the first aerobic or semi-anaerobic, the bacteria used belonging to the class of putrefactive aerobes and facultative anaerobes, and the second stage purely aerobic, the micro-organisms involved in the process being those of nitrification, or, preliminary to the above, and as an initial stage anaerobic bacteria might be employed. Lastly, the experiments might be conducted from the epidemiological point of view rather than with the sole idea of obtaining an effluent chemically sound. For as it is known that certain micro-organisms are antagonistic to others, the special bacteria selected might be saprophytes, the products of whose growth act as bactericidal agents to pathogenic germs. Of course it will be argued that nature's own methods are the best, and that any interferance with the natural course of events is not to be recommended, and that it would be wise to first determine more accurately the precise functions of the different bacteria concerned in the work of 76 the purification of sewage before proceeding to add special bacteria to a liquid or to a bacterial bed already harbouring all the known microbes of putrefaction and nitrification. Such contentions are certainly justifiable, but it is to be thought of that the path to knowledge does not always lie along the most direct route, and accident has before now revealed the truth where experiments conducted on apparently sound lines have entirely failed. Although, as regards the so-called biological treatment of sewage, the results obtained in the past have been most encouraging, at all events, from the chemical point of view, it is now clearly established that all the different processes which have been tried, suffer from serious limitations which at the present time seem almost insuperable in character. It is conceivable that both from the practical and epidemiological point of view a solution of the problem of sewage disposal may lie in one or other of the directions that has been indicated. The stress of work involved in the periodical examination of the crude sewage and effluents from the coke-beds made it impossible to carry out any prolonged research of the above nature. Nevertheless, one experiment was tried, and although attended with apparently negative results, its description will not be out of place. It will be remembered that in previous Reports it was shown that a rapidly-liquefying gasforming proteus-like germ was present in London crude sewage in numbers usually exceeding 100,000 per c.c. This microbe was also found to be present in the effluents in very large numbers. Its ability to form gas, its rapid peptonising action and its abundance seemed to indicate that it was possibly a microbe specially concerned in the work of purification. Accordingly it was determined to isolate a strain of this micro-organism from an effluent, to cultivate it on a large scale, and to add it in great amount to the crude sewage during the ordinary process of filling u matured coke-bed. Three strains of "sewage proteus"* were isolated from 1/1000 c.c. of Barking primary B effluent, (December 6th, 1899). They all grew luxuriantly at blood-heat, formed gas in twentyfour hours in gelatine shake cultures, liquefied gelatine very rapidly, and were very motile. One proved virulent when injected into a guinea-pig; another produced a strong local reaction, but the animal recovered, while the third was apparently non-pathogenic. The latter microbe was used in the experiment. 700 c.c. of agar were added to about 70 tubes and sterilised. The agar was allowed to solidify obliquely in the test tubes. The tubes were next inoculated with the "sewage proteus" and incubated at 20° C. The growth from each of the tubes was transferred to sterile bouillon (1,500 c.c.), and the mixture of bacteria and broth used to inoculate the crude sewage as it flowed on to the 13-foot cokebed at Crossness. This meant the addition of billions of B. proteus to the sewage. The experiment was carried out in the following way— On December 19th, 1899, the bacterial mixture (1,500 c.c.) was added to the crude sewage (about 6,000 gallons) as it flowed on to the coke-beds, the addition being made in small quantities at a time, so as to cover the whole of the period occupied in filling the bed, namely, about twenty minutes. The bed was allowed to remain full for the usual period, namely, three hours, and it was emptied in the usual manner. During the process of emptying, and especially during the first flow of the effluent, a number of vessels in bulk representing approximately thirty gallons—were filled with the effluent and kept in a warm place. "When the time arrived for filling the coke-bed again the contents of the vessels were added to the sewage flowing on to the bed. Further, when, after the usual period, the bed was again emptied, the vessels were again filled with the first flow of the effluent. The above series of operations was carried out until December 22nd, i.e., the crude sewage (about 6,000 gallons) as it flowed on to the coke-bed was first charged on December 19th with a mixture of B. proteus and broth (1,500 c.c.) (the microbes being present in number inconceivably great), and subsequently on six other consecutive occasions with the first flow of the effluent from the previous emptying of the coke-bed. Most unfortunately at this period circumstances arose which made it impossible to test the value of the experiment from the biological point of view. This is greatly to be regretted, as it would have been of interest to have known if B. proteus was more numerous in the effluent than normally, and, if so, how long such numerical superiority was maintained. Further, whether its presence exercised any inhibiting influence on any of the other bacteria usually found in the crude sewage and effluents. Mr. Biggs, the chemist in charge at the Southern Outfall Works, kept careful notes during the above period. He was unable either from the chemical or practical point of view to arrive at any other conclusion than that the experiment yielded quite negative results. That is to say the inoculation of the coke-bed with B. proteus did not produce any appreciable alteration in the effluent either as regards its chemical composition or physical appearance. Nor was the capacity of the coke-bed increased. The negative results may have been more apparent than real. Possibly if the effluents had been tested bacteriologically well defined changes might have been observed in the bacterial composition of the liquid extending over a longer or shorter period. It is conceivabls also that if B. proteus had been added in still greater amount and for a longer period totally different results might have been obtained. To overcome the biological equilibrium of a mature coke-bed of the large capacity of the 13-foot ed at Crossness would naturally call for the addition oft an enormous number of micro-organisms. In conclusion, it must be insisted upon that the apparently negative character of this single experiment in no way suggests the advisability of abandoning a research carried out on the lines that have been here briefly indicated. * The morphologicaland biological characters of "sewaje proteu" ave been already described. See Second Report, V 3, page 36. 77 3.—THE EFFECT, AS REGARDS THE RESULTANT QUALITY OF THE EFFLUENTS FROM THE BACTERIAL BEDS, OF THE ADDITION OF CERTAIN CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES TO THE BARKING CRUDE SEWAGE. It is known that some species of micro-organisms act with great vigour in the presence of a large excess of certain basic substances. For example, the nitrifying germs show increased bacterial activity when grown in liquid media containing an excess of magnesium or calcium carbonate. It is supposed that the solid grains besides neutralising the products of bacterial actilvity, act as what may be termed "contact points," enabling the bacteria to localise and concentrate themselves at a multitude of different spots. Further, if the liquid is in motion the grains may act as "carriers" of the microbes and their products from one place to another. It is a matter of controversy among those who have practical concern with bacterial beds which is the best material to use. Some assert that the actual chemical composition of the substance is of no importance, that it is the physical qualities (e.g., whether smooth or jagged, pervious or impervious) of the material which is all essential. Others believe that certain substances are preferable to all others in virtue of their ability of exerting a basic action on the products of bacterial growth and of encouraging the active growth of special micro-organisms. However this may be, it is of interest to note that Mr. E. Brooke Pike, the chemist in charge at Barking, suggested the trial of ragstone as a better material in respect of its chemical composition than coke. This was agreed to by Dr. Clowes, and accordingly a trial was made of the comparative values of ragstone and coke bacterial beds. The outcome of these experiments seemed to be that the ragstone coke-beds did encourage the growth of the nitrifying germs (as evidenced by an increased production of oxidised nitrogen), but that the effluents, as regards the removal of dissolved oxidisable and putrescible matter, were not so satisfactory from the ragstone as from the coke-beds. Although it is quite conceivable that the actual chemical composition of the material in a bacterial bed, quite apart from its physical characters, may play a definite part in influencing the biological processes at work in the bed, it is evident that the action, whatever it may be, cannot be expected to persist for an indefinite period. With this idea in view, I suggested the trial of the artificial addition, in small amounts, of some such substance as magnesium carbonate or calcium carbonate to the sewage as it flowed on to the beds, as likely to produce a beneficial effect by its diffusion throughout the liquid in the beds and also by its settling on the surface of the fragments of coke and effecting a lodgement there. It was hoped that not only would the result be immediately beneficial, but that the good effect would be maintained for a considerable period after the addition of the substance had been abandoned. In short, that it would only be necessary to occasionally and very rarely resort to such an artificial measure in order to obtain uniformly good results. With Dr. Clowes' permission Mr. E. Brooke Pike was good enough to carry out some very careful experiments in this direction. In the first series of experiments he added magnesium carbonate emulsion to the crude sewage as it flowed on to the beds in such strength as to correspond to O'OOl part of magnesium carbonate to every 100 parts of raw sewage.* This was done each time the beds were filled, viz., twice a day between Wednesday, 21st March, and Wednesday, March 28th, 1900, both days inclusive. The results as regards oxidised nitrogen and oxygen absorbed from permanganate were as follows— Oxygen absorbed from Permanganate in Four Hours at 80° F. Parts per 100,000. Crude sewage. Effluent from primary coarse bed ; series A. Effluent from secondary coarse bed; series A. Effluent from primary coarse bed; series B. Effluent from secondary fine bed; series B. Average of determinations made on March 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16, 19, 20, 1900. Before the addition of magnesium carbonate 6.740 3.410 2.280 3.420 1.780 Purification — 49.4 per cent. 66.2 per cent. 49.3 per cent. 73.6 per cent. Average of determinations made on March 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 1900. During the addition of magnesium carbonate 7.343 3.460 2.429 3.343 1.886 Purification — 52.9 per cent. 66 9 per cent. 54.5 per cent. 74.3 percent. Increase in purification 3.5 per cent. 0.7 per cent. 5.2 per cent. 0.7 percent. Nitrogen as Nitrates. Average of determinations made on March 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 1900. Before the addition of magnesium carbonate — [ .3726 1.2113 .3334 2.0238 Average of determinations made on March 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 1900. During the addition of magnesium carbonate — .4469 1.1854 .4439 2.3935 Increase in amount of oxidised nitrogen — +19 per cent —2 per cent. mmmm 33 per cent. + 18 per cent. * This minimal quantity (.0001 per cent.) was used as a preliminary, as it did not seem desirable to materially increase the suspended matters in the sewage. 78 It will be noted that all the beds showed a very slight but still an appreciable improvement as regards removal of dissolved oxidisable matter, presumably as the result of the magnesium carbonate treatment. Thus the increase in purification in the different effluents was 3.5 per cent.; 0.7 per cent.; 5.2 per cent.; 0.7 per cent. The figures as regards oxidised nitrogen were more encouraging. Thus, with the exception of the secondary coarse bed (series A), where there was a decrease equal to 2 per cent., all the other effluents showed a definite increase of nitrates amounting to 19, 33, and 18 per cent. respectively as regards the effluents from the primary coarse bed (series A), the primary coarse bed (series B), and the secondary fine bed (series B). In a sense there was a double gain as a result of the treatment, because the effluents contained a slightly smaller amount of putrescible matter and also carried with them into the river a greater amount of an oxidising substance. But while the results are of considerable interest from the scientific point of view as affording some confirmation of theoretical considerations, it can hardly be said that they are of equal importance from the practical point of view. They do not, in short, indicate the advisability of continuing the addition of magnesium carbonate as a measure of practical utility. In the second series of experiments Mr. E. Brooke Pike added, as well as magnesium carbonate, a like quantity (viz., .001 per cent.) of sodium carbonate. Without entering into detail, it may be said that the results were no longer satisfactory, and indeed showed a general decrease in respect of nitrate production and of removal of dissolved oxidisable matter. The amount of sodium carbonate added was presumably too small to inhibit bacterial growth, and it is difficult to explain the falling off in the results, unless it be assumed that the sodium carbonate actually increased the vital activity of the micro-organisms in general, but in particular of the de-nitrifying germs and those specially concerned in producing putrefactive changes. In conclusion, it may be said that further and more prolonged experiments seem desirable with magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate, as well as with other substances. These might be tried in varying amounts and added continuously or intermittently. The experiments, of course, which have been described were merely of a tentative character. They may serve, however, to indicate a line of inquiry, not devoid of scientific interest and possibly of practical importance, which has hitherto been neglected. PLATE I. Fig. 1. Streptococcic X.—Microscopic preparation from a broth culture. 24 nouRs' growth at 38° C. Stained by Gram's method. Isolated from —oVo c.c. of effluent from the 6-foot secondary coke-bed at crossness. X 1,000. Fig. 2. Streptococcus XIX.—Microscopic preparation from a broth culture. 48 hours' growth at 38° C. Stained by Gram's method. Isolated from yoVo c.c. of effluent from the primary coarse bed (Series A) at Barking. X 1,000. Fig. 3. Streptococcus XX.—Microscopic preparation from a broth culture. 48 hours* growth at 38° C. Stained by Gram's method. Isolated from yooo c.c. of effluent from the secondary coarse bed (series A) at barking. X 1,000. Fig. 4. Streptococcus XXI.—Microscopic preparation from a broth culture. 48 hours' growth at 38° c. stained by gram's method. isolated from yooo c.c. of barking crude sewage. X 1,000. PLATE II. Fig. 5. B. Pyocaneus.—Microscopic preparation from an agar culture. 24 hours' growth at 38° C. isolated from 1/1000 C.C. of the effluent from the secondary coarse bed (Series A) at Barking. X 1,000. Figs. 6, 7 and 8. Deposit Crossness crude sewage.—50 c.c. of the raw sewage were centrifugalised and a microscopic preparation made of the deposit. This was washed in acid, then in water, and finally stained with methylene blue. it shows zooglœa-like masses of cocci and chains of cocci (streptococci). [In the supplement to the second report it was stated (page 5) that—"numerous preparations subsequently made show that either cocci, or rods so short and rounded at their ends as to simulate cocci, predominate in microscopic stained specimens made from sewage and effluents, and not, as might have been imagined, distinct bacillary or rod-shaped forms."] x 1,000. PLATE III. Fig. 9. B. Thermophilus (or allied form).—Microscopic preparation from a broth culture. Isolated from Barking crude sewage. In illustration of one of the thermophilic bacteria—these microbes are abundant in the raw sewage and in the effluents from the coke-beds, and grow luxuriantly at a temperature of 60-70° C. X 1,000. Fig. 10. Same as fig. 9. X 500. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. A. Fig. B. PLATE IV. Fig. A. Colonies of Streptococci in gelatine and agar plate cultures.—Under a low power of the microscope (Leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular.) (Diagrammatic.) (a) Streptococcus I. COLONY IN AGAR PLATE. (b) „ II. Colony in agar plate. (c) „ II. Colonies in old gelatine culture. (d) „ III. Colony in agar plate. (e) „ X. Colonies in agar plate. (/) „ XI. Colonies in gelatine plate. (7) „ XII. Colony in gelatine plate. (h) „ XIII. Colony in agar plate. (i) „ XIII. Colonies in gelatine plate. (j) „ XIV. Colony in gelatine plate. (k) „ XVIII. Colony in gelatine plate. Fig. B. Broth and gelatine (incubated at blood heat) cultures of streptococci. (Diagrammatic.) (а) Streptococcus I. Gelatine culture incubated at 37° C. for 2 days. (b) „ I. Old broth culture (shaken up). (c) „ II. Gelatine culture incubated at 37° C. for 2 days. (d) „ II. Broth culture (shaken). (e) „ IV. Gelatine culture, 24 hours at 37° C. (f) „ XVII. Broth culture, 2nd day at 37° C. PLATE V. Fig. C. (Diagrammatic.) Colonies (superficial and deep) of spore-forming anaerobes in agar plate cultures (previously inoculated with 1/10 c.c. of crude sewage or of effluent and then heated to 80° C. fob 10 minutes: cultivated under anaërobic conditions at 37° C.). under a low power OF the microscope (leitz, 3 objective, 1 ocular). Fig. C. DIAGRAM I. Showing the number of spores of Bacillus Enteritidis Sporogenes in Barking crude sewage and in the effluents from the coarse and fine coke-beds, and also in the effluents from the coarse and fine ragstone-beds. Tha "upward" column* refer to tha SMALLEST amount of the liquid yielding a POSITIVE result as regard* Bacillus Enteritidla Sporogenes* whan Inoculated Into milk tube*. The "downward" columns refer to the LARGEST amount of the liquid yielding a NEGATIVE result as *regard* Bacillus Enteritidla Sporogene* whan Inoculated Into milk tube*. DIAGRAM 2. Showing the total number of Bacteria In 1 cc of Barking crude sewage and in 1 cc of the effluents from the primary &. secondary coarse beds (Series A); and the primary coarse bed and secondary fine bed (Series B). DIAGRAM 3. Showing the number of Bacillus Coll (or closely allied forms) In 1 cc of Barking crude sewage, and In l cc.of the effluents from the primary and secondary coarse beds (Series A); and the primary coarse bed and secondary flne bed (Series B). DIAGRAM 4 Showing the number of spores of Bacillus Enteritidls Sporogene In Barking crude sewage and In the effluents from the primary and secondary coarse beds (Series A); and the primary coarse bed and secondary fine bed (Series B). The "upward" columns refer to the SMALLEST amount of the liquid yielding a POSITIVE result as regards Bacillus Enteritidis Sporogenes when inoculated into milk tubes. The "downward" columns refer to the LARGEST amount of the liquid yielding a NEGATIVE result when inoculated Into milk tubes. DIAGRAM 5. Showing the number of spores of Anaërobic Bacteria In 1 cc. of Crossness crude sewage and in 1 cc.of the effluent from the 4 ft., 6 ft. (primary), and 6 ft. (secondary) coke-beds. [Agar at 37° C]. *The growths spread over the surface of the medium preventing accural a counting. DIAGRAM 6. Showing the total number of Bacteria in 1 cc. of Crossness crude sewage, and in 1 cc. of the effluent from the 13 ft. coke-bed. DIAGRAM 7. Showing the number of Bacillus Coll (or closely allied forms) in 1 cc. of Crossness crude sewage, and In 1 cc. of the effluent from the 13 ft. coke-bed. DIAGRAM 8. Showing the number of spores of Bacillus Enteritidis Sporogenes In Crossness crude sewage, and In the effluent from the 13 ft. coke-bed. DIAGRAM 9. Showing the total number of Bacteria (Gelatine at 20° C. Agar at 37° C) in Crossness crude sewage, and in the effluent from the 13 ft. coke-bed. REPORT on the RESULT OF INVESTIGATIONS ON THE MICROORGANISMS OF SEWAGE. To the Main Drainage Committee of the London County Council. In previous reports made to the London County Council by one of us, it was shown that the micro-organisms contained in sewer air were not only less in number than the micro-organisms in fresh air in the vicinity at the same time, but that they were also apparently related to and derived from those of fresh air rather than from the sewage, and further that no evidence was forthcoming that sewage was able to give off micro-organisms to the air in contact with it. Inasmuch as these conclusions are not in harmony with generally accepted views, it became of great importance to gain corroborative evidence upon this point by a study of the organisms existing in sewage, and to this end we were instructed by your committee to invest'igate the matter. This was the more essential because practically no exact study of the subject had been previously made, at least in this country. By far the most important work on the micro-organisms of sewage which has yet been done is that of Mr. E. O. Jordan, published in the Reports of the State Board of Health of Massachusetts (1888-90, Part II.). Mr. Jordan reports on and carefully describes twelve species of bacilli, most of them previously unknown, isolated at the experimental sewage station at Lawrence, Mass., and further adds an important report on nitrification and the organism concerned in the process. In the main the results which we have attained are in accord with those of Mr. Jordan, and such differences as we have found may be explained by the probable differences which exist between the floras of English and American waters, and the sewages of London and Lawrence. The work of Roscoe and Lund* does not cover the same ground as that which we have attempted to explore. Their work deals more especially with the chemical properties of a few species of bacteria, chiefly bacilli, isolated from Acton sewage. PART I. the micro-organisms of sewage. Methods adopted.—1. A mode of collection of the sewage was adopted which should give a fair average sample. It is obvious that, especially in small sewers, the rapid variation in the composition of the sewage may render a given amount taken at a particular moment a very unfair sample of the whole bulk. We therefore took repeated small quantities during a period of fifteen to twenty minutes, thereby gaining a fair sample of the sewage in question. These were mixed in a large sterilised bottle (a "Winchester quart"), and subsequently the whole was well incorporated by vigorous shaking for twenty or thirty minutes, in order to break down as far as possible any solid matter. In every case cultivations were made as soon as possible after collection, since, if three or four hours are allowed to elapse, especially in warm weather, the rapid multiplication of the micro-organisms present necessarily vitiates the results. 2. The mode of dilution employed, which was designed to secure an equable admixture of the sewage with the large amount of diluent required, was as follows—Ten cubic centimetres of the mixed and shaken sewage were diluted to 100 c.c. with recently boiled distilled water in a sterilised and accurately stoppered flask, and thoroughly shaken. Of this first dilution 10 c.c. were taken and further diluted to 1,000 c.c. with sterilized distilled water in a second sterile flask and again well shaken. From this second dilution (which represents 1 in 1,000) two further dilutions were made in similar manner—one by taking 10 c.c. and diluting to 100 c.c. (giving a dilution of 1 in 10,000), and another by taking 10 c.c. and diluting to 1,000 c.c. (giving a dilution of 1 in 100,000). These extreme degrees of dilution were of course rendered necessary by the enormous numbers of micro-organisms present in even fresh sewage. A subsequent experiment indicated the possibility that a certain number of bacteria may have been killed off by the distilled water. A better diluent would probably have been sewage sterilised by filtration through a Chamberland or Berkefeld filter. The possible fallacy thus introduced will, however, only be that our results in point of numbers may be somewhat too low. The reason for employing two dilutions (of 1 in 10,000 and 1 in 100,000 respectively) was that our plate cultures were incubated at two different temperatures, some at the temperature of the body (37°C.), and some at a temperature of 22°C., and, inasmuch as many sewage bacteria do not grow at the higher temperature, a lesser degree of dilution could be employed. * Transactions of the Royal Society, 1892. 2 3. The chief mode of cultivation employed was that of agar-agar plates, mainly because a large number of the bacteria of sewage rapidly liquefy gelatine, and also because in certain cases the plates were incubated at 37° C. By the ordinary device of keeping the plates upside down all trouble from the condensation of water was avoided. It is true that gelatine is in general a better medium than agar-agar for the growth of micro-organisms, and subsequent experiments indicated that we should possibly have found larger numbers had we used it, nevertheless the presence of liquefying organisms made its employment almost impossible. Before the more slowly growing colonies have time for development the plates become useless from the rapid liquefaction of the gelatine. Our attention was also specially directed to the possibility of the occurrence of certain disease germs in the sewage, notably those of typhoid, cholera, and diphtheria, and these three organisms all grow well on agaragar. From each sample of sewage taken, 6 to 10 plates were made, and the number of colonies which appeared showed an agreement which convinced us that the method of dilution adopted was a good one. 4. Methods of examination.—Each plate was examined from day to day, and the number of colonies counted accurately with a hand lens. When the number became constant, i.e., when new colonies had ceased to appear, an average was struck between the different plates. Calculation of the total number of micro-organisms was made from the plates which had been incubated at 22° C., since very many bacteria do not grow at a temperature of 37° C. In our latter experiments greater accuracy was obtained by making careful drawings of each plate and numbering the different colonies. From every kind of colony which appeared, so far as we were able to judge, sub-cultures were made, and these were identified and named as completely as the means at our command allowed. This involved not only microscopic observations, but sub-cultures in all the ordinary media employed, agaragar, gelatine, beef-broth, milk, potatoes, &c., and also in many cases the use of chemical tests. But in a very large number of cases, owing to imperfect descriptions and to the fact that many of the bacteria with which we met seem to be hitherto undescribed, identification has been impossible. In a few cases we give descriptions of such new species as appear to us of importance, but in most instances we are obliged to pass over new or undescribed species, as to work out all their characters would be the labour of some years. Inasmuch as we desired to keep a very careful watch for the occurrence of the typhoid fever bacillus in sewage, and since this organism is very similar to Bacillus coli communis (a normal inhabitant of the human intestine and one of the commonest of sewage bacteria), and indeed only to be distinguished from it with certainty by various chemical reactions, it was necessary to employ special chemical tests in the case of all colonies which seemed likely to be the typhoid bacillus. Particulars of the methods employed will be given later, when we describe in detail our search for this organism in sewage. It was clearly probable that the bacteria present in fresh sewage might prove very different from those in older and more decomposed sewage. Sewage may be a favourable medium for the growth of one species, an unfavourable one for another. The latter will therefore tend to disappear from older sewage, which will contain larger and larger numbers of those particular organisms for which it is a suitable soil. We therefore determined to examine, in the first instance, the most recent and unaltered sewage to which we could gain access, but which nevertheless should be a fairly representative sample. We selected the Smithfield outfall from St. Bartholomew's Hospital, as the area drained by this sewer is sufficiently large to give a fair sample of average fresh sewage, including as it does, not merely that from hospital wards but from several dwelling houses, and laboratories of various kinds. The hospital has, moreover, during the past few years been newly drained, and the sewage is delivered at the outfall within a few minutes of its discharge into the drains, having no prolonged sojourn in old and foul brick drains to alter its composition. We hoped thus to gain some idea of the bacterial flora of perfectly recent and unaltered sewage. We next examined a sample of somewhat older sewage from a much larger area, but including that from St. Bartholomew's Hospital—that, namely, from the Fleet sewer in Farringdon-street under Holborn Viaduct, which takes the sewage from the districts of Holborn and Smithfield. Later we examined sewage from the Barking outfall, which represents the sum total of all sewage north of the Thames, and from the Crossness outfall, which is a similar summation of all sewages south of the Thames. Ultimately, with the special object of searching for the bacillus of typhoid fever, we examined sewage from the drain which leaves the scarlet and typhoid fever blocks at the Eastern Fever Hospital at Homerton, and again that from a sewer in Bridge-street, Homerton, about a quarter of a mile from the hospital, which conveyed the sewage of the Homerton district, including the hospital, into the main sewer. the total number of bacteria present in sewage. Various published determinations show the number of organisms present in sewage to be enormous. The results of Mr. Jordan's examination of the sewage of Lawrence, Mass., gave an average of only 708,000 living bacteria per cubic centimetre, his highest result being 3,963,000 per c.c. He obtained far higher results during the summer months than at other times. We have found, and our results agree with those of other observers in England, that the number of bacteria in London sewage is considerably higher than this. Determinations of the number of micro-organisms in the sewage of the King's Scholars' Pond sewer in November and December, 1891, mentioned in a previous report, showed 2,618,000 and 3,179,000 respectively. The figures we have obtained are as follows:— In perfectly fresh sewage from St. Bartholomew's Hospital on January 26th, 1894, at 10.30 a.m. from which cultivations were made immediately, without allowing any time for the multiplication of the micro-organisms, we found on an average 2,781,650 bacteria per cubic centimetre. Two agar-agar plates, inoculated each with 1 c.c. of the sewage diluted 10,000 times, and incubated at 22° C. yielded 3 respectively 216 and 330 colonies. Six similar plates, inoculated each with 1 c.c. of the sewage diluted 100,000 times, yielded respectively 21, 39, 26, 27, 28, and 29 colonies. The total average is given above. The same sewage, however, after being kept for three days in a stoppered bottle, showed an enormous increase in bacteria, a similar plate inoculated with 1 c.c. of the sewage diluted 100,000 times yielded 338 colonies, representing 33,800.000 bacteria per cubic centimetre. From the Fleet sewer in Snow-hill the results were somewhat higher. The sewage was taken on March 2nd, at 11.30 a.m., and cultivations were made immediately. Three agar-agar plates, made in the same way as the above, with 1 c.c. each of the sewage diluted 100,000 times, gave respectively 40, 28, and 34 colonies, yielding an average of 3,400,000 bacteria per cubic centimetre. With this sewage also we made further experiments, to ascertain what proportion of the bacteria present would grow at a temperature of 37°C., or with the addition of .05 per cent. carbolic acid, or under the influence of both these conditions combined. Two agar-agar plates, inoculated each with a cubic centimetre of the sewage diluted 10,000 times, with the addition of .05 per cent. carbolic acid, and incubated at 37° C. yielded respectively 59 and 38 colonies, giving an average of 485,000 organisms per cubic centimetre which could grow under these unfavourable conditions. Two plates made in a similar manner, without the addition of carbolic acid, but incubated at 37° C., yielded respectively 103, and 78 colonies, or an average of 905,000 colonies per c.c., which could grow at this temperature. A single plate inoculated with 1 c.c. of a dilution of 1 in 100,000, with the addition of .05 per cent. carbolic acid, but incubated at 22° C., yielded 19 colonies, or 1,900,000 organisms per c.c. of sewage. These results indicate that a temperature of 37° C. inhibited the growth of 73.4 per cent. of the total number of organisms present in this sewage, while the addition of .05 per cent. carbolic acid inhibited the growth of 44.2 per cent. of the total number ; the combination of .05 per cent. carbolic acid, with a temperature of 37° C., inhibited the growth of no less than 85.8 per cent. of the bacteria present. In the case of the sewage collected at Barking, at 11.30 a.m., on April 4tli, an hour and a-half elapsed before cultivations could be made in the laboratory. Two agar-agar plates, made each with 1 c.c. of the sewage diluted 100,000 times, and incubated at 22° C., yielded respectively 21 and 17 colonies, or an average of 1,900,000 bacteria per c.c. of sewage. A gelatine plate, however, made in the same way gave 64 colonies, or 6,400,000 bacteria per c.c. of sewage. It is known that gelatine is a more favourable medium for the growth of bacteria than agar-agar, but the discrepancy between these two results is surprising; it is easy, however, to attach too much importance to isolated observations of this kind. The number of bacteria calculated from the agar-agar plates is less than might have been expected, but the results given by similar plates kept at a higher temperature, or with the addition of '05 per cent, carbolic acid, are proportionate. With the same sewage at the same time, two similar agar-agar plates (each containing 1 c.c. of the sewage diluted 10,000 times) were inoculated and incubated at 37°C.; one yielded 27 and the other 60 colonies, or an average of 435,000 bacteria per c.c. of sewage, able to grow at the higher temperature : i.e., 77"2 per cent, were inhibited in their growth. Two agar-agar plates containing each 1 c.c. of the sewage diluted 100,000 times, but with the addition of .05 per cent. carbolic acid, yielded when incubated at 22° C., 11 and 8 colonies respectively, equal to 950,000 organisms per c.c. of sewage able to grow in the presence of this amount of carbolic acid : i.e., 50 per cent. were inhibited in their growth. Lastly, the two conditions were combined and two agar-agar plates were inoculated with 1 c.c. each of the sewage diluted 10,000 times, and incubated at 37° C. with the addition of .05 per cent. carbolic acid; these yielded respectively 15 and 8 colonies, or an average of 115,000 organisms per c.c. of sewage able to grow at 37° C. with the addition of the above percentage of carbolic acid : i.e., 94 per cent. were inhibited. With regard to the total number of organisms present in sewage the highest results were obtained from a sample taken at the Crossness outfall at 2.30 p.m. on July 10th. This is doubtless attributable on the one hand to the warmer weather then prevailing, and on the other to the fact that three hours elapsed between the time the sewage was collected and the making of the cultivations. The possible effects of this interval were however obviated as far as possible by keeping the bottle of sewage during its transit packed in a chloride of ammonium freezing mixture. Six agar-agar plates were made, each containing 1 c.c. of the sewage diluted 100,000 times, and they were incubated at 22° C. They yielded respectively 124, 127, 105, 119, 110 and 88 colonies, or an average of 11, 216, 666 micro-organisms per c.c. of sewage. The sewage collected from the fever hospital at Homerton on May 23rd at 11 a.m. was examined chiefly for the purpose of discovering the typhoid fever bacillus. Of two agar-agar plates made with 1 c.c. of the sewage diluted 100,000 times, and incubated at 22° 0, one gave 45 and the other 35 colonies, or an average of 4,000,000 bacteria per c.c. of sewage. Two gelatine plates made at the same time and of the same degree of dilution yielded after two days 41 and 42 colonies, or 4,150,000 bacteria per c.c.'of which 2,600,000 liquefied gelatine. But many more colonies would have appeared but for the rapid liquefaction of the gelatine, so that this is not to be regarded as a result fairly comparable with that of the agar-agar plates. A similar experiment with agar-agar plates, made with sewage taken from the Bridge-street sewer at Homerton on June 21st, at 2.30 p.m., gave an average of 4,050,000 bacteria per c.c. of sewage. It will thus be seen that very wide variations exist in the total number of micro-organisms present in sewage at different times and in different places, as indeed might safely have been predicted. Temperature is one important factor in determining the rapidity of their reproduction, and hence the increase in their numbers ; dilution of the sewage by rainfall must also exert a marked influence. The estimations on which the foregoing figures are based were made with all possible care, and we believe them to be as accurate as possible for each particular sewage at the time we examined it. But it is clear that a small number of determinations, such as we have made, can afford only an indication of the average number of bacteria present in sewage, nor was it our desire to pursue this subject in detail, as we were concerned with the nature of the organisms present rather than with their actual numbers. 4 species of micro-organisms present in sewage. 1.—Fresh seivage Jrom, St. Bartholomew's Hospital. From the plates made from this sewage more than 200 colonies were examined, sub-cultures in various media being made from most of them. The following organisms were recognised— Moulds.—One colony alone was found, of a dark brown colour, and identical with the species found in sewer air. Yeasts.—Four colonies of torula grew, belonging to at least two species. One species was white and allied to common yeast (S. cerevisiae) the other was of a pale pink colour. Micrococci.—A small streptococcus was the commonest organism present in this sewer, no less than 37 of the colonies were referred to this species. The colonies were minute and grew slowly, so that they formed a very inconspicuous feature in the plates. We were unable to identify the exact species, but it possessed the power of coagulating milk in 24 to 36 hours when incubated at 37° C. It was clearly not the common pathogenic species (Streptococcus pyogenes). Micrococcus ochroleucus occurred twice. Micrococcus luteus twice. Pediococcus albus doubtfully once. A citron coloured micrococcus which we failed to identify was met with three times. A new species of pink coccus, which we have named Micrococcus aurora, and which we describe later, occurred once. Sarcina colonies were found eight times, all being of a yellow colour, though none could be referred to the common sewer air and fresh air sarcina (S. lutea). Amongst them were S. flava and S. aurantiaca and at least two other species which are apparently undescribed. Bacilli.—No less than 45 colonies resembled at first sight B. coli communis, but of these less than a dozen responded to the chemical tests (coagulation of milk, formation of gas bubbles in gelatine shake-cultures, and production of indol in broth) which are relied on to distinguish the bacillus from its allies. It was, nevertheless, if we except the above-mentioned streptococcus, the commonest and certainly the most conspicuous of the organisms present in this sewage. Those of the 45 colonies which failed to give some or all of the three chemical tests must be classed, from their morphological and cultural resemblances, as close allies of B. coli communis, but we are unable to refer them to any described species. B. fluorescens liquefaciens was met with twice. B. aureus occurred three times. B. janthinus, a brilliant violet species, occurred in one colony only. A dark orange brown bacillus, growing rapidly, was found once. B. subflavus and B. fluorescens aureus were each met with doubtfully once. Proteus Zenlceri, a common putrefactive organism, occurred twice. Bacillus mycoid.es occurred twice. A bacillus allied to B. pyocyaneus, which we describe later as Bacillus cloacae fluorescens, occurred twice. A very rapidly growing bacillus, which we describe later as Proteus cloacinus, was met with once. This species was present in all the different samples of sewage which we examined. Cladothrix.—Cladothrix dichotoma was found once. 2.—Snow-hill sewage (Fleet sewer). In all we examined 365 colonies in the plates made from this sewage. The variety of species was somewhat less than in the fresh sewage from St. Bartholomew's Hospital: we recognised 15 species as compared with 22 from the latter. Moulds.—One colony of brown mould only grew in the plates from this sewage. Torula—A white torula occurred several times. Micrococci. The streptococcus coagulating milk, mentioned as common in the St. Bartholomew's sewage, was again very abundant here ; 22 colonies were isolated. Staphylococcus cereus albus occurred twice. Staphylococcus pyogenes citreus was present four times. Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus occurred once. Biplococcus albicans tardissirnus, eight colonies were found. Diplococcus roseus—This organism, present also in sewer air, occurred once, and was again met with in other sewage. Micrococcus flavus liquefaciens—One colony only met with. Sarcina flava occurred in 25 colonies together with three colonies of an apparently new species of yellow sarcina, giving a characteristic sepia brown reaction with strong sulphuric acid. Cladothrix, C. dichotoma, two colonies. Bacilli.—Here again B. coli communis was one of the commonest bacilli present, but of the numerous colonies which at first sight resembled it only a small proportion, a dozen or so in all, gave all the typical chemical reactions. But it is worth noting that some of these after six to eight weeks in subculture, while retaining the power of coagulating milk, lost the power of producing indol in broth, and in some cases of producing gas bubbles in gelatine shake cultures. There were present a large number of colonies of species allied to B. coli communis, which we could not identify with any already described organism, some of these gave two of the chemical reactions of B. coli communis, but not the third. B. mesentericus ruber was found once. B. aureus occurred once. Proteus cloacinus, described below, occurred twice. 5 A species resembling B. aquatilis sulcatus was found once. One colony was found which at first sight resembled the diphtheria bacillus, but which on subculture proved not to be this species. 3.—Barking sewage. In this experiment we examined 167 colonies. In this, the oldest sewage we were able to examine, we found a marked difference as to the number and character of the species of bacteria present compared with those of the more recent sewages. Two moulds were found: one penicillium glaucum, one hitherto undescribed. Four colonies of a pink torula were found which had the unusual property (in a torula) of very slowly liquefying gelatine. Also a white torula. Streptococcus colonies were found five times. A yellow staphylococcus, which we could not identify, was common, 27 colonies being found. Diplococcus roseus occurred three times. Sarcina flava was doubtfully present in one colony. Bacillus aureus occurred only once. B. coli communis was not found, and this fact constitutes one of the most striking features in this sample of sewage. Numerous colonies grew which resembled this species, but these when tested chemically, produced coagulation of milk in only 12 cases, and these 12 colonies failed to give the other chemical reactions ofB. coli communis. B. albus putidus, an organism which we had not previously met with, was, however, abundant in this sewage, 14 colonies being found. A similar prevalence of this species was found later in the Crossness sewage. 4.--Crossness sewage. No careful study was made of the bacteria present in this sewage, owing to the fact that we were at this period chiefly devoting our attention to a search for the typhoid bacillus, and to its growth in sewage under varying conditions. We may note, however, that out of 673 colonies which grew in the plates made from this sewage, only three were moulds; and indeed in the whole course of our observations on the bacteriology of sewage, only seven colonies of moulds occurred or an average of only 0.4 per cent. of the colonies examined. The prevalence of Bacillus albus putidus was noteworthy, also the number of Proteus cloacinus described later. 5.—Homerton sewage. Here our attention was almost exclusively devoted to a search for the typhoid fever bacillus, of which we succeeded in finding two colonies. We could pay little heed to other organisms present, though it may be noted that B. coli communis was present, and that we found enormous numbers of Bacillus fluorescein stercoralis, a species described below. B. mycoides was also found. Of the organisms present in the sewage from Bridge-street, Homerton, we have no special notes, having been engaged solely in the endeavour to find the typhoid bacillus. Bacilli closely allied to B. coli communis were however present in considerable numbers. description of certain new species of bacteria in sewage. So little has been done in this field that, had we had the time to devote to the subject, it would have been easy to describe many dozen species of bacteria which we have met with in the course of our observations, which have, so far as we can ascertain, not been hitherto described. The complete flora of so complex a fluid is however the work of a lifetime, and we must be content to describe a few forms only, which on account of their numerical prevalence, seem to us worthy of special notice, or which, in one case, are of special beauty. The species we propose to name and describe are as follows:— Micrococcus aurora. Source.—Found in fresh sewage from St. Bartholomew's Hospital. Form and arrangement.—Slightly oval cocci, 0.7 to 0.8 n in diameter, often as diplococci separated by a cleft, rarely in short chains of 3 or 4 elements. In broth cultures the cocci are often arranged in irregular packets. Large irregular torula-like forms occurred once in an agar-agar culture. Motility.—Non-motile. Groivth on gelatine plates.—Colonies first appear on the third day, minute and circular, not yet pink in colour. Under the microscope they appear granular and slightly irregular in outline. On the fifth day the surface colonies are less than 0'5 m.m. in diameter, circular, prominent, and pinkish. After a week the largest colonies are 0.7 m.m. in diameter, those in the depth 0.25 m.m., and of a pale pink tint. Later the colonies attain a diameter of 1 to 1.5 m.m. and liquefaction slowly occurs after two to three weeks. Streak cultures on gelatine show after two days a narrow prominent line of growth of a pale pink tint, which eventually attains a width of T5 to 2 m.m. and a bright pink colour. Liquefaction occurs after 14 to 16 days. Stab cultures in gelatine show definite growth in three days, almost entirely confined to the surface; in the depth of the gelatine little or no development occurs. A flat layer 4 m.m. in diameter and of a light pink colour is present on the surface at the end of a week. Liquefaction is extremely tardy, but some depression of the surface occurs after a fortnight, and distinct commencing liquefaction in 16 days. 6 On agar-agar.—Streak cultures at 20° C. show distinct growth in two days, semi-transparent and barely pink. At the end of a week the growth is opaque and of a bright pink colour, the streak being some 3 m.m. wide. At 37° C. no growth occurs. On potato.—Grows exceedingly well, forming a thick layer of a brilliant deep pink colour, which eventually covers the whole surface. In broth.—The fluid gradually becomes turbid, and after a week there is a light pink sediment at the bottom of the tube. Temperature.—Grows well at 20° to 22° C. No growth on any medium at 37° C. Rapidity of growth.—Grows rather slowly, but maximum of growth is attained in 7 to 10 day?. Spore formation.—Not observed. Need of oxygen.—Growth very scanty away from the surface. Gas production.—Not observed. Action on gelatine.— Very slow and gradual liquefaction after two to three weeks. Pigment production.—Produces a bright pink pigment, readily soluble in alcohol, only slightly 30 in water. Relations.—Appears most closely related to Micrococcus agilis and Micrococcus roseus, but differs from the former in the absence of motility and the lighter pink colour of the cultures, and from the latter in the absence of any growth at 37° C. Proteus cloacinus. Source.—Found in every sample we have examined. Form and arrangement.—A short bacillus of variable length: 0.4 to 0.5 µ in breadth; stained specimens from a two-days-old agar-agar culture vary from 0.5 to 1 µ in length; the shorter forms almost resembling cocci. On gelatine some longer forms are seen, up to 1.6 µ in length, and these may be as much as 0.6 µ in breadth. In a one-day-old broth culture the average length is 0.8 µ. Motility.—Actively motile. Growth on gelatine plates.—The colonies are visible to the naked eye in 19 hours, though still very minute. Under the microscope the surface colonies are thin, transparent and irregular in outline, the deeper colonies globular and brownish by transmitted light. In two days the surface colonies are more circular and regular in outline; the largest are about 1 m.m. in diameter; a few show a thin spreading edge, but no "swarming islands" are given off. No further change occurs except that the colonies increase in size up to 2 m.m. in diameter, and become raised at the edges; they are of a greyish white colour. No liquefaction occurs even at the end of a fortnight. The plates have a somewhat sour smell. Gelatine streak cidtures.—Growth is rapid—the streak attaining a width of 1.5 m.m. in 24 hours, when it is semi-transparent and whitish, with a gummy appearance. The edges are irregular, but show none of the characteristic "swarms" given off by Proteus vulgaris. In two days typical streaks are white and semi-opaque with a waxy lustre, and in five days the width of the streak may be 3 to 5 m.m. Later the growth becomes distinctly terraced, and liquefaction eventually occurs in about three weeks. The species is, however, very variable in its behaviour in gelatine streak culture. Specimens, the purity of which was assured by subsequent plate culture, occasionally liquefied the gelatine in from three to five days, and in these cases "swarming islands" were thrown out from the edges of the streak as in the common Proteus. The "swarms" are thrown out into the depth of the gelatine as well as laterally, and the process seems associated with early liquefaction. In other cases streaks grew with much lateral expansion, forming an irregular semi-transparent growth on the surface like that of B. coli communis. Gelatine stab cultures.—Growth is rapid and well marked all along the needle track. Scanty gas bubbles are formed. Liquefaction first commences in from two to three weeks. The growth is white and nodular in the depth. Gelatine shake c idtures.—There is a profuse formation of gas bubbles in 24 hours; these are later partially re-absorbed. Agar-agar.—Agar-agar plates incubated at 37° show exceedingly rapid and characteristic growth. A single colony spreads in 36 hours, as a thin irregular dendritic film covering almost the whole surface of the plate. The film does not thicken on further incubation. Agar-agar streak cidtures.—Growth is very rapid both at 37° C and 20° C. Even at the latter temperature the whole surface of the tube is covered in 24 hours by a thin homogeneous semi-translucent greyish film, advancing at the edge by irregular processes. On the second day the growth is somewhat thicker and whiter and has reached its full development. There is a scanty development of gas bubbles in the depth of the agar-agar, but no odour of putrefaction is ever perceptible. Potato.—Grows rapidly, forming a slimy layer of a yellowish grey colour. The bacilli grow to longer threads than on other media, and become irregularly swollen. Broth.—In 24 hours the broth is turbid, and in a few days a slight film is present on the surface, and a yellowish white deposit at the bottom of the tube. In a week there is a marked putrefactive odour (absent in gelatine and agar-agar cultures). Tested, after 11 days, with nitric acid—containing nitrous acid—no trace of indol reaction was obtained. Milk.— Grows without producing any change in this medium. Temperature.—Grows equally well at 37° C and 20° C. Rapidity of growth.—Grows very rapidly, and on agar-agar with extraordinary quickness. Spore formation.—Not observed. Need of oxygen.—Grows well in the depth in stab cultures. Gas production.—Abundant. Action on gelatine.—Variable. Typically, no liquefaction occurs till after a lapse of two or three weeks; exceptionally, it occurs in three to five days. 7 Pigment production and chemical reactions.—Produces no pigment. Decomposes broth with the evolution of a strong putrefactive odour. No such change noted in other media. Does not give the indol reaction. Relations.—Belongs apparently to the group of bacilli included formerly under the term 'Bacterium termo.' Resembles in many respects Proteus mirabilis, but as a rule liquefies far more slowly and only occasionally throws out "swarming islands." Bacillus cloacae fluorescens. Source.—Found in Homerton sewage and sewage from St. Bartholomew's Hospital. Form and arrangement.—Motile rods, on an average twice as long as broad, though some are longer. Breadth 0.6 to 0.75 µ, length 1 to 2 µ, the average being about 13 µ. The rods are sometimes attached in chains. Motility.—Actively motile. Growth on gelatine—Gelatine plates.—Minute colonies first become visible in 24 hours. In two days the surface colonies have begun to liquefy and are circular, 2 to 2½ m.m. in diameter, and under the microscope are seen to have a very delicate transparent irregular spreading margin not yet liquefied. The circular liquefied portion is turbid with a granular deposit in the centre, and shows slight but distinct greenish fluorescence. On the third day liquefaction has advanced so far that the colonies are 5 or 6 m.m. in diameter and partly fused with one another, the whole plate being largely liquefied with bright yellowish green fluorescence and a sour and unpleasant smell. Gelatine stab cultures.—Growth occurs almost entirely at the surface, along the depth of the needle track hardly any is to be seen. Liquefaction begins at the surface on the second day, in a cone some 2 m.m. wide at the surface, extending down some way along the needle track. It gradually spreads, chiefly at the surface, till it reaches the walls of the tube in seven days, by which time slight fluorescence is visible. In a fortnight the gelatine is liquefied for 10 or 12 m.m. from the surface, and spreads downwards in a horizontal plane; the liquefied portion has a yellowish green fluorescence and is floored with whitish deposit. On agar-agar.—No growth occurs at 37° C. Agar-agar streak cultures at 20° C.—Growth is rapid, a greyish-white semi-trail-lucent streak appearing in 24 hours about 2 m.m. wide and with irregular edges. Fluorescence is first perceptible on the second day when the streak is 8 m.m. wide. In eight days the agar-agar exhibits a brilliant greenish-yellow fluorescence, the growth itself being whitish and semi-opaque, and from 4 to 5 m.m. in width, with irregular wavy edges. The brilliant fluorescence persists for several weeks without fading. On potato.—Grows as a dirty brown layer, spreading from the line of inoculation. In broth.—Grows rapidly, giving rise to dense turbidity. A thin film forms at the surface, and the top layer of the broth acquires in time a marked greenish fluorescence. The sediment eventually becomes of a pale brown colour. In milk.—Growth is similar to that of B. Jluorescens stercoralis, but slower. No coagulation is produced, but after four days the upper layer becomes slightly yellowish and less opaque, owing to gradual digestion. Temperature.—No growth whatever at 37° C. Grows well at 20° C. Rapidity of growth.—Grows rapidly, attaining its maximum in a week or ten days. Spore formation.—Not observed. Need of oxygen.—Growth exceedingly scanty away from the surface. Oxygen seems necessary for the production of the fluorescent pigment. Gas production.—Not observed. Relation to gelatine.—Liquefies at first rapidly, later with increasing slowness. Pigment production.—Produces a greenish-yellow fluorescent pigment, apparently allied to that yielded by B. pyocyaneus. No pyocvanin can be extracted by chloroform from agar-agar or gelatine cultures. Relations.—Closely allied to B. pyocyaneus, but differing from it in its inability to grow at 37° C. Bacillus fluorescens stercoralis. Source.—Found in Homerton sewage and Barking sewage. Form and arrangement.—Motile rods, about twice as long as broad, but of variable length. The breadth varies from 0.5 to 0.7µ, and the length from 0.8 to 1.6µ ; longer forms rarely occur. Motility.—Actively motile. Growth on gelatine.— Gelatine plates.—Tiny circular colonies are visible under the microscope in 19 hours. In 24 hours they are visible to the naked eye. I11 two days the surface colonies are liquefied and appear as uniformly turbid circles 2 to 3 m.m. in diameter, with a whitish flocculent deposit at bottom. The deeper colonies are white, spherical and still very minute. In three days the colonies have increased in diameter up to 10 m.m., and are fused in places, the plate being mostly liquefied with distinct greenish yellow fluorescence and a sour fecal smell. On the fourth day the plate is completely liquefied and the fluorescence brighter. Gelatine stab cultures.—In 19 hours there is already liquefaction at the surface as a small flat hemisphere 2 m.m. in diameter, which in two days attains a diameter of 6 or 7 m.m., and in three days reaches the walls of the tube, though not to a greater depth than 3 m.m. Little growth occurs along the needle-track, growth being practically confined to the surface. The liquefaction advances always in a horizontal plane, no cone being formed even at the first. In five days it extends 6 or 7 m.m. down the gelatine, and in a week about 12 m.m.; after this it progresses more slowly, and in 17 days has only advanced 25 m.m. from the surface. Greenish fluorescence is marked in the liquefied portion by the fifth day, a thin pellicle forms on the surface, and there is a thick whitish deposit at the bottom of the liquefied portion. 8 On agar-agar.—No growth occurs at 37° C. At 20° C. growth is rapid. Agar-agar streak cultures.—In 24 hours the streak is 2 m.m. broad, of a greyish white colour, gummy and semi-translucent in appearance, with a thick slightly irregular edge. In two days the streak is 3 m.m. in width and distinct fluorescence is perceptible, and in a week the agar-agar shows brilliant greenish-yellow fluorescence. The streak ultimately attains a width of 4 to 5 m.m. In cultures of three weeks old or more the fluorescence fades to a yellowish brown tint and the growth becomes more transparent. In broth.—Growth is very similar to that of B. fluorescens liquefaciens; marked green fluorescence appears in the surface layer after the third day. In milk.—The milk does not coagulate, but is gradually digested, the upper layer becoming yellowish and semi-transparent after two days; this change gradually spreads downwards, and in five days there is a loose flocculent deposit at the bottom of the tube, the upper layers being semitransparent and of a slightly yellowish-green tint. Temperature.—No growth in any medium at 37° C. Grows well at 20° C. Rapidity of growth.—Grows rapidly, attaining its maximum of growth in a week or 10 days. Spore formation.—Not observed. Need of oxygen.—Growth almost absent away from the surface. The fluorescent pigment is produced only in contact with the air. Gas production.—Not observed. Reaction on gelatine.—Liquefies rapidly. Pigment production.—Produces a greenish yellow fluorescent pigment, apparently identical with that yielded by the preceding species, B. cloacae fluorescens, but fading more quickly. Liquefied plates have an unpleasant sour, somewhat faecal smell. Relations.—Allied closely to the preceding species, but is of somewhat smaller size, and liquefies gelatine more rapidly. It is also closely allied to B. fluorescens liquefaciens, but differs from it in the mode and rate of liquefaction of gelatine, and in the greater brilliancy of the fluorescence it produces in agar-agar cultures, in which it resembles B. pyocyaneus. From the last-named species it differs in its refusal to grow at 37° C. conclusions. If we now proceed to contrast the micro-organisms which we have found present in London sewage, as above described, with those found in the air of London sewers, and described in a previous report, certain striking differences become at once apparent. The most striking is the absence of moulds from sewage. Out of the many thousand colonies which arose in the numerous plates which were made, moulds occurred only seven times, and of those seven moulds one, and one only, was allied to the common species existing in sewer air. This result coincides with that obtained by Jordan in the sewage of Lawrence, Mass. "Moulds," he says, "are found rarely in the sewage and effluents." Further the same striking result was obtained by Mr. Dibdin in a series of experiments he made on the number of micro-organisms in Barking sewage. In sewer air on the contrary moulds were found to be a predominating feature, forming on an average no less than 64.33 per cent. of the total colonies. The proportion, however, varies according to season; in winter it may be as low as 13.33 per cent., while in the summer months it may rise as high as 82.6 per cent. of the total. It is right, however, to point out that in our sewage experiments, agar-agar, which is a less favourable medium than gelatine for the growth of moulds, was employed, whereas in the estimation of the organisms present in sewer air gelatine was used. This, however, does not materially affect our results since most moulds grow well on agar-agar at a temperature of 22° C. Jordan, and Dibdin, moreover employed gelatine plates only- Bacillus coli communis was found, with one exception, in each sample of sewage we examined, and varied in numbers from 20,000 to 200,000 per cubic centimetre. In addition we isolated in every case many bacilli which, although indistinguishable in cultural features from bacillus coli communis, nevertheless gave only one or at most two of the three characteristic chemical reactions. These bacilli in most instances far outnumbered the true bacillus coli communis. Nevertheless, neither B. coli communis nor any of its close allies were ever found in sewer air. Furthermore, we have obtained enormous numbers of sarcina, amounting in one case to over 300,000 per cubic centimetre, yet we have not found one single colony of Sarcina lutea which is so common in sewer air and fresh air. The flora of sewage naturally embraces a very large number of different species of bacteria, but when we consider the enormous number of micro-organisms per cubic centimetre and the extreme degree of dilution that it is necessary to employ in making cultivations, it will be evident that we have probably isolated only those species which are present in comparatively large numbers. The following organisms are those which we have found to be present in numbers varying from 200,000 to 2,500,000 per cubic centimetre—bacillus fluorescens stercoralis, bacillus albus putidus, bacillus fluorescens liquefaciens, bacillus cloacae fluorescens, bacillus mycoides, proteus cloacinus, proteus Zenkeri, a streptococcus coagulating milk, staphylococcus pyogenes citreus, sarcina flava and its allies, and diplococcus albicans tardissimus. Other bacilli, which rapidly liquefy gelatine and produce a green fluorescence, were found in numbers varying from 10,000 to 200,000 per cubic centimetre. A further difference between the bacteria of sewer air and those of sewage lies in the relative proportions of micrococci and bacilli. The bacteria of sewer air were found to consist mainly of micrococci, bacilli forming but a small proportion of the total species found. The bacilli found were B. subtilis, B. aureus, B. arborescens, B. helvolus, B. nigrescens, and B. acidi lactici. In sewage itself, however, there can be no doubt that bacilli preponderate over micrococci, probably in actual numbers, certainly in the numbers of species present. The large majority of those species which we have been obliged to pass over were bacilli. This was less noticeable in the fresh sewage taken from St. Bartholomew's Hospital, where the large number of streptococcus colonies materially altered the 9 ratio between the bacilli and micrococci; in the sewage taken from Snow-hill and Barking the bacilli showed a distinct numerical preponderance. This result again is in harmony with that obtained by other observers, indeed the results we have obtained show a somewhat smaller preponderance of bacilli over cocci than has been recorded by others. Jordan states that the comparative absence of micrococci from sewage is a striking and highly remarkable circumstance. In any case the facts again come out in striking confirmation of the view that the organisms present in sewer air are not derived to any essential extent from the sewage, or they would show to some degree the same relative ratio of micrococci to bacilli. The argument receives also important confirmation from other considerations. A large proportion of the bacteria of sewage have the property of very rapidly liquefying the nutrient gelatine used as a cultural medium, so large a proportion indeed as to make gelatine an impossible medium to employ in estimating their numbers. In sewer air, on the contrary, organisms rapidly liquefying gelatine were found to be practically absent, a fact impossible to explain on the assumption that sewer air is able to take up bacteria from sewage. Again the number of micro-organisms existing in sewer air appears to be entirely dependent upon the number of micro-organisms existing in the fresh air at the same time and in the same vicinity. With the advance of the colder weather, and consequent rapid decrease in the number of micro-organisms in fresh air we find a corresponding decrease in the number of the micro-organisms of sewer air, although the temperature of the sewer air and sewage suffer but a comparatively slight variation. If the organisms existing in sewer air were derived from those existing in sewage, then the flora of sewer air should bear a very close resemblance to the flora of sewage. When, however, we compare the organisms which have hitherto been isolated from sewer air with those species which we have found to be 'predominant in sewage, it is at once evident that they bear no resemblance whatever to one another, indeed we may go even further and state that so far as we are aware not a single colony of any of those species which we have found predominant in sewage has been isolated from sewer air. We consider therefore that the study of the sewage bacteria, on which we have been engaged, fully confirms the conclusion previously arrived at from the study of the micro-organisms of sewer air, viz., that there is no relationship between the organisms of sewer air and sewage. It is possible that some of the ill effects which have been erroneously ascribed to sewer air may be due to subsoil air derived from soil polluted by constant infiltration of excremental matter through a leaky drain. It is a well recognised fact that subsoil air does at times gain access to our dwellings, either through the pressure of the wind on the surface of the ground or from currents induced by wide differences between the exterior and interior temperatures. Under such conditions it is possible that sewage may gradually extend through a permeable soil until its outer margin becomes sufficiently dry to give off micro-organisms to the subsoil air. Whatever the danger arising from this cause may be, it would in all probability be strictly limited in its effect. PART II. typhoid fever in its relation to sewage. The sources of the micro-organisms in London sewage are clearly diverse and manifold. It must contain species derived from the water of the different companies which supply the metropolis; these are numerous and varied, and so far they have not been sufficiently studied. It must contain species derived from the air, species again of which our knowledge is very limited. Further the superficial layers of the soil must add their quota of species brought down by surface water drainage, and the amount of organic matter in the soil of an old city must render that number a large one. Lastly the various putrescible organic matters which constitute the essential part of sewage will add a vast number of bacteria to the fluid; human excreta for example teem with organisms as do the waste and household refuse passing down into the sewers from houses and manufactories. The ultimate bacterial flora of sewage is only in part determined by the organisms which pass into that fluid with its various constituents. Probably only a small proportion of these ultimately survive. For some species sewage forms a favourable nutrient medium, others appear speedily to perish in it. Those again which may be just able to grow in it under favourable circumstances, will be liable to be crowded out in the struggle for existence by their more vigorous competitors. The changes moreover induced in the sewage by the growth of certain bacteria, changes mostly of a fermentative and putrefactive character, will of necessity lead to alterations in its capacity for serving as a nutrient medium for some species; as its chemical composition alters some species may be favoured, others arrested in their growth. The struggle for existence, the survival of the fittest, will necessarily occur in miniature amongst these lowly organisms in sewage as elsewhere in the organic world. And thus the flora of sewage at the Barking and Crossness outfalls comes to be, as we have found it, very different from that of the perfectly fresh fluid as originally delivered into the drains. It becomes, therefore, a matter of very great importance to determine the fate of certain pathogenic organisms in sewage. Amongst the diseases which have been attributed to sewer air, and to contamination of drinking water by sewage, two have especially attracted attention—cholera and typhoid fever, and the spread of diphtheria is held by some to be due to the same cause. During the period of our observations cholera was absent from London; Koch's comma bacillus could not have been expected to be present, and though all colonies resembling it were closely scrutinised, it was not found. The spread of diphtheria by sewage is at least a matter of doubt, and though sewer air has been held responsible for certain outbreaks of the disease, it seems clear that but a small part in the dissemination of the disease can be played by such a cause. The diphtheria bacillus can be easily recognised and its pathogenic power tested; yet though a careful look-out was kept for this organism we never found it. Typhoid fever stands on a different footing; there is no question that the specific poison of the disease, believed on very good 10 grounds to be the Bacillus typhosus of Eberth and Gaffky, passes from the body with the feces, and that the excreta of typhoid patients constitute the main channel of infection in this disease. The disinfection of such excreta is a matter of extreme difficulty, and is as a rule very imperfectly carried out even in our fever hospitals. It hence results that sewage becomes a very important agent in the dissemination of the disease, and contamination of water supplies by sewage, the chief cause of typhoid epidemics. Our attention in the inquiry which we have carried out was therefore specially directed to the possible occurrence of the bacillus typhosus in London sewage, and every colony which seemed likely to belong to this species was the subject of careful investigation. It has been already mentioned that Bacillus coli communis, a normal inhabitant of the digestive tract of man and animals, and one of the commonest and most constant organisms present in sewage, bears a strong resemblance to the typhoid bacillus, and is in morphological and cultural characters closely allied to it. It can, however, be distinguished from it readily enough by certain chemical tests, and for the right understanding of the methods we have employed in searching for it, it is needful to go into this matter in some detail. In cultural characters, i.e. mode of growth on different nutrient media, the two organisms resemble one another so closely that even the most experienced bacteriologists would hesitate to diagnose one from the other by such means alone. In morphological characters they are better to be distinguished ; the colon bacillus is shorter, and, owing to the possession of fewer flagella, is much less actively motile. Reliance is, however, chiefly to be placed in their different chemical reactions. The colon bacillus, when inoculated into sterilized milk and incubated at 37° C. produces coagulation of the milk in 24 to 36 hours ; the typhoid bacillus has no such power, the milk remaining fluid for an indefinite period. The colon bacillus, when inoculated into nutrient gelatine, which is then liquefied at 25° C. and shaken so as to diffuse the bacillus throughout the mass of the nutrient medium, and then allowed again to solidify and incubated at 22° C., produces abundant gas bubbles as it grows, the typhoid bacillus under similar conditions produces no gas. The colon bacillus when grown in alkaline beef, broth, or in peptone solution, at 37° C. produces a body, probably indol, recognised by the development of a deep red colour on the addition of nitrous acid; the typhoid bacillus has no such power. These three tests form then an easy means of distinguishing the two organisms, and it may be affirmed that any given organism which in cultural characters resembles the bacillus typhosus, which is actively motile and grows into threads longer than those seen in B. coli communis, and which fails to produce coagulation in milk to form gas bubbles in gelatine shake preparations, and to give rise to indol in broth or peptone cultures, is at least indistinguishable from the typhoid bacillus, and may with every degree of probability be regarded as such. Further than this it is impossible to go; the lower animals do not, so far as we know, suffer from typhoid fever in the sense in which we recognise it in man, and hence inoculation experiments on animals do not help us to prove a given organism to be the actual virus of typhoid fever. With these considerations clearly in view, we proceeded from the outset of our investigations to scrutinize carefully every colony which in any way seemed to resemble the typhoid bacillus. And in every case we failed to recognise it. We then became oppressed by a sense of mathematical improbability. The average amount of sewage produced in London amounts to 200 million gallons per diem. During June, 1894, 177 cases of typhoid fever were notified in London, to which may be added 13 cases of continued fever. Assuming each case to last a month, it may be supposed that during the early summer months, when typhoid is by no means prevalent, two hundred cases of the disease would represent a fair average of the number existing in London at any one time. A large number of these cases suffer from constipation and hence contribute very little fecal matter to the general mass of sewage. Those who suffer from diarrhoea do so, as a rule, only for a certain portion of the time they are ill. Moreover, it must be remembered that in all outbreaks of typhoid a large number of cases of diarrhoea occurs, which, though not presenting the typical features of the disease, are probably truly typhoid in nature, and are capable of disseminating the infection. Any estimate, therefore, of the average amount of sewage contributed daily by the cases of typhoid in London must be purely conjectural, but a reasonable estimate of such average amount appears to us to be 1/25000 part of whole, and it must not be forgotten that every endeavour is made to disinfect this. The mathematical chances of detecting the typhoid bacillus in ordinary London sewage are therefore extremely remote. If the above assumption be correct, and if all the typhoid sewage be further assumed to be intimately mixed with the ordinary sewage, there would only be on an average one typhoid bacillus in every 1/10 c.c. of sewage at the outfalls. But the largest amount of undiluted sewage with which we have found it possible to work is 1/5000 of a.c.c., and this only when 90 per cent. of the organisms present were inhibited by the addition of 0.05 per cent. carbolic acid, and incubation at 37° C. Discouraged by these considerations we determined to search for the typhoid bacillus in sewers where it might be expected to be present in larger proportion. To this end we considered the different fever hospitals, and selected the Eastern Hospital at Homerton as likely to serve our purpose, since it has new drains easily accessible at the different manholes and inspection chambers, and since also the typhoid fever cases are located in a separate block of buildings. Having obtained the consent of the Metropolitan Asylums Board, we entered into correspondence with the resident medical superintendent, who kindly lent us all the aid in his power. It was agreed that no disinfection of the typhoid stools should take place for two days preceding our visit, and this was carried out. On the morning of May 23rd we visited the hospital at Homerton. There were at the time some 40 cases of typhoid in the block set apart for that disease, many being acute cases suffering from diarrhoea. The drain from the typhoid fever block joins that from the scarlet fever block, and is accessible by a manhole before it leaves the hospital. At this manhole we collected the sewage in a sterilized bottle, taking small samples at short intervals, so as to get a fair average specimen. It was unfortunately a wet day, so that the sewage was considerably diluted, and it contained also a large quantity of soapsuds. We returned immediately to the laboratory and at once proceeded to make cultivations from 11 the sewage. Knowing that the typhoid bacillus grows well at 37° C. and that it can grow in the presence of .05 per cent. of carbolic acid, we made six agar-agar plates, with 1 c.c. of a dilution of 1 in 5,000; and after the addition of .05 per cent. of carbolic acid to each plate they were incubated at 37° C. In this way, as we have shown earlier in this report, some 90 per cent. of the organisms present in sewage are prevented from growing, and so the task of searching for one particular organism capable of growing under these conditions is proportionately lightened. Bacillus coli communis and other allies of the typhoid bacillus can, however, also grow in such plates, and it was from these that we now had to differentiate any possible typhoid colonies. The chemical tests which have been mentioned above as distinguishing B. coli communis from B. typhosus suggested the following mode of procedure. From every colony which resembled the typhoid bacillus a sub-culture was at once made in sterilized milk and incubated at 37°. Those milk tubes which coagulated were rejected as being certainly not typhoid. From the ones which did not coagulate, streak cultures were made on gelatine; some of these liquefied and were hence rejected as certainly not typhoid. Those which did not liquefy were each tested by shake cultures in gelatine, as to their power of gas production, and by cultures in broth to which the indol test with nitrous acid was applied. Some gave rise to both gas formation and the indol reaction, many others to one of the two reactions; all such could be rejected, and at the end we were left with two colonies only which resembled B. typhosus in their morphological and cultural characters, which failed to produce coagulation in milk and which gave rise to no gas bubbles in gelatine and produced no indol in broth. These two colonies we hence regard as colonies of the typhoid bacillus, or at least as absolutely indistinguishable from that organism. Inasmuch as animals are not susceptible to typhoid fever in the strict sense of the term (i.e. since the typical lesions of human typhoid have not so far been reproduced experimentally in animals), it was useless to attempt any further verification of our results by inoculation experiments on animals, or we should have done so. We must be content to have shown that in the drain from the typhoid block of a fever hospital, when the stools have not been disinfected for two days a bacillus can be found which, so far as demonstration can go, is identical with that believed to be the actual cause of typhoid fever. So far as we are aware this important fact has never previously been demonstrated. A week or two later we examined in the same way sewage taken from a drain in Bridge-street, Homerton, about a quarter of a mile from the hospital, which received the hospital sewage as well as that from the surrounding district. Exactly the same method of procedure was adopted, and the results proved entirely negative; no single colony could be referred to B. typhosus. This may have been due in part to the great dilution of the hospital sewage with that from the surrounding district, or in part to the fact that the typhoid stools were then being disinfected as usual. experiments on the vitality of the typhoid bacillus in sewage. We have shown above that the number of typhoid bacilli which gain access to our sewers, when compared with non-pathogenic microbes, is relatively very small, inasmuch as the amount of typhoid excreta forms but a minute proportion of the whole, and much even of this is in a measure disinfected. The same is true of the diphtheria bacillus and, during the prevalence of cholera, of the cholera vibrio. It is hence evident that it is a matter of the greatest importance to determine the duration of vitality of these pathogenic organisms under conditions which may be considered normal to their dissemination. The points to be determined are (1) whether normal sewage is a favourable or unfavourable soil for their life and growth, and (2) what influence, if any, the various non-pathogenic organisms present in such overwhelming numbers exert upon their pathogenic companions. It will be evident that the question is one of much complexity, demanding for its solution much detailed and laborious experiment. In order to gain some definite knowledge on these points, we have carried out a series of preliminary experiments with the bacillus of typhoid fever, and the results, though far from complete, appear to us of sufficient value to merit record. The duration of vitality of the typhoid bacillus in sewage.—It was necessary in the first place to prepare sterile sewage in which to sow the typhoid bacilli. In the earlier experiments we did this by boiling sewage for a short period on two or three consecutive days, after it had undergone a preliminary filtration through ordinary filter paper. It became clear to us, however, that this was not a good method, since the process must of necessity affect the composition of the sewage and so render it abnormal. Not only will volatile organic matters be driven off by boiling, but the carbonates of lime and magnesia will be thrown out of solution together with certain soluble organic matters. We, therefore, adopted a method suggested to us by Dr. Klein, and employed the Berkefeld filter, which has sufficiently fine pores to prevent the passage of micro-organisms through it. The sewage was twice filtered through the Berkefeld filter and then heated to 60° C. in a sterile flask for 20 minutes on two consecutive days. In this way complete sterility was obtained, with the smallest possible departure from the normal as regards chemical composition. The sewage employed was from Barking or Crossness. We first compared the typhoid bacillus with the colon bacillus as to their respective powers of vitality and multiplication in sewage which had been sterilised by heat. Experiment I.—Two tubes of sterilised sewage were inoculated with B. typhosus and two with B. coli communis, and incubated at 37° C. After the lapse of 24 hours the tubes inoculated with B. coli communis showed abundant growth, while those inoculated with the typhoid bacillus showed no growth at all. After four days' incubation one typhoid tube showed very slight development, the other none, even when tested by sub-culture on gelatine. Experiment II.—Three tubes of sewage sterilised by heat were inoculated respectively with a culture of B. typhosus obtained from the spleen of a fatal case of typhoid fever, with a culture of B. coli communis derived from the human intestine, and with one of B. coli communis obtained from the fresh sewage of St. Bartholomew's Hospital. All three cultures had been previously tested and gave typical reactions. The sewage tubes were incubated at 37° C. After two days the two B. coli tubes 12 were found to have undergone considerable growth, the fluid being milky in appearance. The typhoid tube remained clear. A platinum loop was dipped into each tube and cultures made on nutrient gelatine; the two B. coli tubes yielded very numerous colonies, the typhoid tube yielded only one colony after a long interval. From the three sewage tubes, after the lapse of two days, three fresh sewage tubes were inoculated and incubated at 37° C. The typhoid tube was sterile; the B. coli tubes grew well, and from them third and subsequently fourth generations in sterile sewage were carried on. The fourth generation, three weeks after the commencement of the experiment, yielded very numerous colonies of B. coli communis when tested by inoculation on gelatine. It was also ascertained that after growing for four days in sewage, the second generation of B. coli communis still retained its powers of coagulating milk, of forming gas bubbles on gelatine, and producing indol in broth. It thus appears that the harmless colon bacillus is able to grow and multiply abundantly in sewage sterilised by heat, when incubated at 37° C, and that it may be so cultivated for several generations ; the typhoid bacillus, on the contrary, is unable to grow, and quickly perishes under these conditions. This constitutes a new and important distinction between these allied organisms. It remained to test more accurately the duration of life of the typhoid bacillus in sterilised sewage, kept at 37° C. Experiment III.—A tube of sewage sterilised by heat was inoculated with three drops of a broth culture of the typhoid bacillus (four days old). The cultivation was tested at intervals by removing a platinum loopful and spreading it over the surface of a gelatine tube. A sub-culture thus made immediately after its inoculation with the typhoid bacillus yielded more than 100 typhoid colonies. After the lapse of 21 f hours a sub-culture yielded 15 colonies. After 50 hours only one colony was obtained, and after 73f hours none. The typhoid bacillus thus appears to die speedily when cultivated in sewage sterilised by heat and incubated at 37° C. death occurring within a few days. A temperature of 37°0. is not, however, a normal condition in sewage, and we next attempted to determine the duration of vitality of the typhoid bacillus in sewage kept at the ordinary temperature of the air—20° C. The two following experiments show that at this temperature life is maintained for a longer period, though probably not beyond a fortnight. Experiment IV.—A tube of sewage sterilised by heat was inoculated with the typhoid bacillus as in the preceding experiment, and incubated at 20° C. It was tested in the same way by sub-cultures on gelatine at suitable intervals, a control sub-culture being made at the outset, immediately after inoculation. After 24 hours a slight increase in the number of colonies was noticed, as if slight multiplication had occurred. The diminution in the number of colonies was thenceforward steady, till at the end of ten days a large capillary pipetteful of the sewage yielded only 30 or 40 colonies, and in 13 days none at all were found. Experiment V.—A tube of sewage sterilised by heat was inoculated with one drop of a fresh broth culture of B. typhosus, and incubated at 20° C. A small quantity was removed on a platinum loop and transferred to gelatine immediately after inoculation to determine the number of colonies originally present, and the process was repeated at stated intervals. The results were as follows:— Immediately after inoculation 225 colonies arose Alter 24 hours 250 „ „ „ 68 „ 140 „ 5 days 48 7 ,, 13 „ ,, 13 „ 0 „ It is to be observed that the removal of so small a quantity of fluid as can be conveyed on a platinum loop is no fair test of the total absence of living bacilli from a culture, and it is quite possible that the removal of larger quantities might have shown living bacilli to be present after 13 days. Similar, or approximately similar, amounts would nevertheless be removed by a platinum loop on each occasion, so that the experiment clearly shows that although an attempt at growth may occur during the first 24 hours, the typhoid bacillus gradually but surely dies out in sewage, and is quite incapable of any active growth therein. Sewage, therefore, even in the absence of the normal micro-organisms which it contains is clearly an unfavourable medium for the growth of the typhoid germ, whereas the colon bacillus can grow and multiply freely in it. It might be anticipated that in competition with other organisms able to grow well in sewage, the typhoid bacillus would die out even more speedily. The problem is a complex one, and in order to gain some idea of the influence which v arious non-pathogenic bacteria normally present in sewage would exert upon the life and growth of the typhoid bacillus when growing side by side with it, we selected certain of the organisms which we had frequently found during the progress of our observations, and experimentally tested their effect on the duration of vitality of the typhoid bacillus. In order to simplify the problem we confined our attention to those organisms which are incapable of growing at a temperature of 37° C., by which means it became easy to separate out the typhoid bacilli from any other organism or organisms to which it had been added, and to determine the number still alive after any given interval. When the agar-agar plate cultivations were incubated at 37° C., only the typhoid bacilli could grow. The organisms we selected were all capable of growing freely in sterile sewage at the ordinary temperature of the air, and were as follows—Bacillus fluorescens liquefaciens, bacillus albus putidus, and two of the species which we have described above as bacillus fluorescens stercoralis and bacillus cloaca; fluorescens. In the first two experiments the sewage was sterilised by boiling. Experiment VI.—The typhoid bacillus grown in sterile sewage with bacillus fluorescens stercoralis and B. albus putidus respectively. To two tubes each containing 10 c.c. of sterilised sewage, three drops of a fresh typhoid broth culture were added. To one of these tubes three drops of a fresh culture of B. fluorescens stercoralis, and 13 to the other a similar amount of a fresh culture of B. albus putidus were further added. The contents of each tube were well mixed, and they were allowed to remain at the temperature of the room screened from the action of direct sunlight. At the outset of the experiment, and at given intervals, the number of typhoid bacilli still living was determined, by making agar-agar plate cultivations with so much of the sewage as was removed on the end of a platinum loop, and the plates were incubated at 37° C. The following results were obtained- Typhoid + B. fluorescein stercoralis. Typhoid + B. albus putidus. No. of colonies in original mixture 630 590 After 24 hours 148 570 After 76 hours 0 156 After 4 days — 141 After 5 days — 134 After 11 days — 24 Experiment VII.—This experiment was in every detail similar to the preceding, but was carried out with B. fluorescens liquefaciens, bacillus cloacae fluoresceins and again with bacillus fluorescens stercoralis, three drops of fresh cultures of each respectively being added to the sterile sewage at the same time that it was inoculated with the typhoid bacillus. The results were as follows— Typhoid + B. fluorescens stercoralis. Typhoid + B. fluor. liquefaciens. Typhoid + B. cloacae fluorescens. No. of colonies in original mixture 1,030 1,769 935 After 24 hours 1 949 946 After 3 days 0 1,010 235 After 4 days — 20 — After 7 days — 0 — After 10 days (.5 c.c.) 135 18 It will be seen from these experiments that B. fluorescens stercoralis and B. fluorescens liquefaciens both exert a marked influence upon the duration of vitality of the typhoid bacillus in sewage, particularly the former. In no instance is there evidence of any increase in the number of typhoid bacilli. As no typhoid colonies arose after the third day in the case of B. fluorescens stercoralis, and after the 7th day in the case of B. fluorescens liquefaciens, it was desirable to know whether the typhoid bacilli had been completely destroyed or whether they had merely been so reduced in number as to escape detection when only a minute quantity of the mixture was used for making the plate cultivations. On making a plate culture with half a cubic centimetre of the mixture 135 colonies of the typhoid bacillus were obtained even after 10 days' exposure to the influence of B. fluorescens liquefaciens. The above figures must, therefore, be regarded as aflording merely an indication of the rate at which the typhoid bacilli perished, and not as fixing definitely the date of their final destruction. We determined to test this matter on a more extended scale, and in a more accurate manner. Therefore in the following experiment several slight modifications and improvements were introduced. The sewage was sterilised by filtration instead of by boiling. Larger quantities of sewage were employed for cultivation, and much greater precision was aimed at by measuring accurately the quantities of typhoid and other cultures used, and by employing for each agar-agar plate a carefully measured amount of the mixtures. Experiment VIII.—Six small wide mouthed flasks, each containing 2½ ounces of sterile sewage, were inoculated each with 0.5 c.c. of the same broth culture of the typhoid bacillus. Four of these flasks then received 0.2 c.c. respectively of fresh broth cultures of the following organisms:—B. fluorescens stercoralis, B. fluorescens liquefaciens, B. albus putidus and B. cloacœ fluorescens. A fifth flask received 0.2 c.c. of cultures of all four organisms—0.8 c.c. in all. The sixth flask, which was used as the standard, received only the typhoid bacilli. The flasks were agitated so as intimately to mix their contents and then kept in the dark at the temperature of the room. The number of typhoid bacilli per cubic centimetre was determined in each flask, from time to time, by abstracting a measured quantity of the fluid (from 1/10 c.c. to 1 c.c.) and diluting it with sterilised distilled water to a given volume, and then making agar-agar plate cultures with 1 c.c. of the diluted material. The degree of dilution was diminished pari passu with the decrease in the number of the typhoid bacilli present, until it was possible to take relatively large quantities of the undiluted mixtures. The agar-agar plates were incubated at 37° C. As all the six flasks were inoculated with an exactly similar quantity of the same typhoid broth culture which had previously been thoroughly mixed, the number of bacilli per cubic centimetre in the flask containing typhoid bacilli alone was regarded as representing the average for the whole series. The results which we obtained are expressed in the following table—the number of bacilli per c.c. being calculated from the actual numbers observed. Time of experiment. Typhoid alone No. of colonies per c.c. Typhoid + B. fluorescens stercoralis. Typhoid + B. fluorescens liquefaciens. Typhoid+B. albus putidus. Typhoid + B. cloacæ fluorescens Typhoid+ Mixture of all four species. At starting 1,048,000 — — — — — 1 day after 1,838,000 — 230,000 — — — 3 days 506,000 107,000 80,000 531,000 839,000 228,000 5 „ „ 3,000 800* 45,200 340,000 825,000 41,800 7 „ — 616* 26.400 3,000 78,000 27,800 10 „ „ 0 502* 0 0 0 0 * 0.5 c.c. of the undiluted mixture employed for each plate. 14 Certain points calling for comment may be added to the above table. After the tenth day several of the flasks became contaminated with other organisms, so that exact estimation of the number of typhoid bacilli was impossible. We had reason, however, for believing that the total extinction of the typhoid bacilli did not take place quite as soon as the above figures indicate, since on the twelfth day cultivations from most of the flasks, made by taking 0.5 c.c. of the undiluted mixtures, showed a large number of colonies, many of which were certainly typhoid. The flask containing typhoid with B. fluoresceins stercoralis proved perfectly sterile on the twelfth day, even though 0.5 c.c. of the mixture was used. The negative results on the tenth day from the other five flasks were obtained from plates made with the diluted mixtures, and it is possible that the distilled water used for dilution exercised an unfavourable influence on bacilli previously weakened by their sojourn in an unsuitable medium. In one flask, that containing typhoid with the mixture of all four organisms, some typhoid bacilli were found living even alter the lapse of 30 days, when a sufficiently large amount of the undiluted mixture was used for cultivation. In spite of possible errors thus arising during the later stages of this experiment, we believe that the figures in the table are reliable up to the end of the tenth day, at least no labour was spared to make them so. So far as deductions can be safely drawn from a single series of experiments, the following conclusions seem to be warranted. Bacillus typhosus seems capable of slight multiplication in sterilised sewage during the first 24 hours only, thenceforward it becomes gradually extinct. The presence of certain non-pathogenic organisms, commonly present in sewage, appears to affect its extinction. Of the four organisms which we tested B. fluorescens stercoralis alone seems to have any marked effect upon the vitality of B. typhosus, and this effect is practically absent when other organisms are present at the same time. The mixture of the four non-pathogenic bacteria had no effect in hastening the extinction of B. typhosus, indeed the reverse appears to have been the case. These preliminary experiments are necessarily very incomplete, and afford only an indication of the probable fate of typhoid bacilli which gain access in a living condition to sewage. It seems however clear that sewage does not form a medium in which much, if any, growth is possible for them under natural conditions, and their death is probably only a matter of a few days or at most one or two weeks. But this degree of resistance may, nevertheless, be sufficient to allow of their being carried in sewage to remote distances and of their being able to produce disastrous results should they gain access to any water supply. As our knowledge accumulates, it becomes more and more evident that water supply and, as an incidental result, our milk supply constitute the chief channels of infection by which typhoid fever is communicated, and this is true also of cholera and possibly of other infectious diseases. It is, therefore, of the first importance to determine in an exhaustive manner how far sewage is a possible soil for the growth of these and other disease germs which admittedly gain access to it, and also to determine what precise influence their non-pathogenic companions may exert on them. In the conclusions to Part I. of this report we endeavoured to show that sewer air has no power of taking up bacteria from the sewage with which it is in contact. A strong argument in favour of this view is the fact that the very organisms which are most abundant in sewage are precisely those which are absent from sewer air. In the course of previous experiments on sewer air, the nature of the organisms in some 1,200 litres of sewer air was carefully determined. Not once was Bacillus coli communis, or any of the predominant organisms of sewage found, though we have shown above that the former is present in sewage in numbers varying from 20,000 to 200,000 per cubic centimetre. If this be so, how infinitely improbable becomes the existence of the typhoid bacillus in the air of our sewers. That sewage is a common medium for the dissemination of typhoid is certain; that sewage-polluted soil may give up germs to subsoil air is possible; but that the air of sewers themselves should play any part in the conveyance of typhoid fever appears to us, as the results of our investigations, in the highest degree unlikely. J. Parry Laws. Frederick W. Andrewes. 13th December, 1894. FIRST REPORT TO THE MAIN DRAINAGE COMMITTEE OF THE LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL, ON SEWER AIR INVESTIGATIONS. By J. PARRY LAWS, F.I.O. To the Main Drainage Committee, London County Council. Gentlemen, I beg to present to you my report of the investigations on sewer air, which I have been carrying out in accordance with your instructions in the King's Scholars Pond sewer. Although sewer air has for a long time been regarded as dangerous, and a likely source of infection in certain specific diseases, very little has been done to substantiate this hypothesis by scientific research. The earliest experiments on sewer air are those of Dr. Letheby, in 1857-58 (Report to the City of London Commissioners of Sewers). He examined the air in thirteen sewers of the City of London, and found the following— Marsh Gas and 140 grains of air deprived 0% N% Vols, of C02 Sulphuretted Ammonia of co2 and H2 O gave on per 10,000. Hydrogen. Oxidation CO2 H20 19.506 79.962 52.2 Traces rather abundant 1.417 1.126 No indication of the condition of the sewers is given. In 1867, *Dr. Miller, in the course of an investigation on the action of charcoal air filters, made a number of analyses in two London sewers. One sewer was clean and well ventilated, the other tide-locked and ill ventilated. In the former he found as the average of 18 analyses 10.6 Vols. CO., and in the latter, as the average of 6 analyses, 30.7 Vols. C02 in 10,000. No sulphuretted hydrogen could be detected. In 1877, Beetz,† of Munich, found 31.4 Vols. C02 and 2.2 Vols, ammonia per 10,000 as an average of 5 analyses. The first determinations of micro-organisms in sewer air were made by Miguel.‡ He found 0.8 to 0.9 per litre in the sewer air of the Rue de Rivoli in the neighbourhood of the point where this sewer joins the large collector of the Boulevard Sebastopol. He states that the organisms in the air of the Rue de Rivoli may in summer exceed in number the organisms in the sewer air by five or six times, whereas in winter the ratio may be reversed. No details, however, are furnished of the condition or means of ventilation of the sewer. The most important, however, and the most recent investigation on this subject is that of Drs. Carnelly and Haldane. These authors made a series of observations in the main sewer of Westminster Palace and in various sewers in Dundee. In the Dundee sewers, by far the most important series of experiments, ventilation is carried out by means of open gratings placed in the roadway at distances of about 50 yards apart, and also by open drain grids placed along each side of the road, at distances of about 40 yards. The size of the sewers ranged from 3 ft. 5 in. to 9 ft. The authors determined simultaneously the amount of C02, organic matter, and the number of micro-organisms in the sewer air, and also in the fresh air above, as nearly as possible at the same time. The methods employed by them were for the estimation of C02 Pettenkofer's, for organic matter, Carnelly and Mackie's modification of the permanganate process, and for micro-organisms, Hesse's method. The general conclusions are as follows— 1. The air of sewers was much better than one might have expected. 2. The CO. was about twice, and the organic matter about three times as great as in the outside air at the same time. 3. The number of micro-organisms was less in sewer air than iu the outside air at the same time. 4. That in reference to the quantity of the three constituents above-named, the air of sewers was in a very much better condition than the air of naturally ventilated schools, and, with the exception of the organic matter, of mechanically ventilated schools. 5. Sewer air contained a much smaller number of micro-organisms than the air in any class of house they had investigated. * "Chemical News," March 13th, 1868. † Quoted by Erismann in Pettenkofer and Ziemsen's "Handbuch dor Hygiene," vol. 2, p. 197. ‡ " Les Organismes Vivants de 1'Atmosphere, 1883," p. 273. 2 The authorities just quoted make the following remarks as to the sources of the several impurities in sewer air. Carbonic acid in sewer air over and above that in fresh air may have two sources. It may in part be due to diffusion into the sewer from the neighbouring soil, but probably its chief source is oxidation of organic matter in the sewage and the air of the sewer. The source of the organic matter in sewer air over and above that present in fresh air at the same time is of course the sewage itself. The organic matter arising from the sewage is probably wholly, or for the most part gaseous, and the gaseous organic matter will probably be of two kinds, that volatile per se, and that volatile with aqueous vapour from the sewage water. Organic matter may also get into the air where splashing occurs from the entry of a side drain high up in the wall of a sewer. There are two possible sources of the majority of micro-organisms in sewer air. They may in the first place be derived from the sewage and sewer walls, or secondly from fresh air gaining access to the sewer by ventilation. Were their source the sewage or the walls of the sewer, their number would increase with the length of sewer traversed by the air or with the length of time during which the air was in contact with the sources of contamination. They found, however, that the very opposite was the case, the number of micro-organisms diminishing with the distance the air had travelled from the nearest ventilator. This fact is not at all surprising when we remember the very damp condition of the sewer walls and the constant tendency of organisms to deposit. It has been abundantly proved by Naegeli and other observers that liquids and damp surfaces do not, with ordinary air currents, give off micro-organisms to the surrounding atmosphere. It may be interesting to note here that I found only moulds and micrococci in the water streaming down the roof of the sewer. A decrease in the number of micro-organisms in fresh air was followed by a decrease in the number of micro-organisms in sewer air. An additional argument may be derived from the fact that the average proportion of moulds to bacteria was nearly the same in the sewer air and corresponding fresh air. Although the authors did not make any use of the microscope to determine whether the various colonies derived from sewer air were similar to those derived from corresponding fresh air, they clearly state that, so far as naked eye observation went, the colonies with one exception were identical. For the purposes of my own investigation a stretch of sewer was chosen in which not only were the conditions simple and uniform, but also of long standing. It was thus possible to introduce a known complication, and to estimate its amount and effect upon conditions already known. For instance, it was easy to arrest the passage of air in and out of the sewer at a known point, as well as to causo a degree of splashing sufficient to disseminate in the air of the sewer any particles existing in the sewage itself that were capable of being disseminated. The sewer actually chosen is known as the King's Scholars' Pond sewer. It runs in a straight line under the Green-park, from Piccadilly in the north to Buckingham Palace-road in the south. It was constructed some 120 years ago, and has therefore been in use long enough to become itself contaminated in every possible way. In length it is about 300 yards, it is barrel shaped, and about 11 ft. high by 9 ft. wide. It is ventilated by open gratings only in the crown of the sewer. These are placed in tbe turf at distances of about 50 yards apart, so that the air circulates over them with perfect freedom. There are two entrances, one close to Piccadilly, and the other about 200 yards further on in the Green-park. One important feature is that no lateral sewers or house drains enter it from one end to the other, the consequence is that it contains an even flow of sewage together with a thorough free access to the air of the park. So far as regards the enquiry into the micro-organisms in sewer air, it is obvious that it was possible to estimate under the most favourable conditions, with fair accuracy, the number and character of the organisms in the air of this particular sewer as compared with the number and character of microorganisms in the air above. The amount of moisture, carbonic acid, and the number of micro-organisms was estimated in the outside air, and then in the air of the sewer immediately afterwards. The organic matter was not estimated, as the data furnished by the permanganate and other processes at present in use is not very reliable. In addition to these determinations, the barometric pressure, direction and approximate force of the wind, shade temperature, the temperature of the sewer air, rate of the air current, and quantity of sewage were also noted. The methods employed for determining the water, carbonic acid, and micro-organisms, were Haldane and Pembrey's* for water and carbonic acid, and Frankland'st for micro-organisms. The experiments may be conveniently divided into three series. I. Normal sewer air experiments. II. Splashing experiments. III. Deodorising experiments. For the convenience of working, a wooden staging was erected across the sewer a few feet from the second entrance, by which I always gained access to the sewer. A ventilator occurs at a very short distance above the staging; this ventilator was closed during all the experiments with the exception of the first. All the air gaining access to the sewer had therefore to travel 40 to 60 yards either way before reaching the apparatus. The estimations of microorganisms both in fresh air and in sewer air were made in duplicate with one exception. The following tables give the results of the three series of experiments, Table I. of the normal sewer air experiments, Table II. of the splashing experiments, and Table III. of the deodorising experiments. * "Philosophical Magazine," 1890. † "Philosophical Transactions," 1887, page 113. 3 Normal sewer air experiments. In Table I. we have the results of eight experiments. It will be seen that the carbonic acid of the sewer air varies from 4.40 as a minimum to 16.04 vols. as a maximum per 10,000 vols. of air, giving an average for eight estimations of 9.18 vols. per 10,000, the carbonic acid in fresh air varying during the same period from 2.54 as a minimum to 3.18 as a maximum per 10,000 vols. It is remarkable that the CO2 of the fresh air should be so small, but to test the accuracy of the analyses several were made in duplicate. In five out of the seven determinations given in the same table, the number of micro-organisms ill sewer air is less than in the fresh air, in the other two cases greater than in the fresh air. I do not find such a perfect uniformity of results as was found by Drs. Carnelly and Haldane. This may perhaps be accounted for by the fact that they, working together, were enabled to analyse the fresh air and sewer air simultaneously, whereas as much as two to three hours frequently elapsed from the commencement of the analyses of the fresh air to the completion of the estimation of micro-organisms in the sewer air. With regard to the statement of the authorities just quoted "that a decrease in the number of micro-organisms in fresh air was followed by a decrease in micro-organisms in the sewer air," my experiments are in perfect accord with theirs. This fact is particularly noteworthy also in the series of deodorising experiments Table III. In the two instances alluded to above, in which the number of organisms in sewer air exceeded those in the fresh air, the excess is due almost entirely to moulds and not to bacteria. Splashing experiments. Table II. In this series of experiments sewer air only was dealt with. Determinations of the water, carbonic acid, and micro-organisms of the normal sewer air were made, then splashing was effected by continuously filling with sewage—shoots placed at about the middle line of the sewer and at varying distances from the apparatus. The object was to imitate and estimate, as nearly as possible, the disturbing effect of a house drain favourably placed in a sewer, and not to obtain violent splashing. It has been shown by previous experimenters that if the splashing is sufficiently violent to produce a very fine state of division of the sewage, organisms will be carried some distance, even 50 to 60 yards. Hence the violent splashing, such as is produced by the entrance of a house drain through the crown of a sewer, should never be permitted. From Table II. it will be seen that sewage running out of a shoot about the middle of a sewer of the dimensions of the King's Scholars' Pond sewer produces practically no effect upon the number of micro-organisms in the sewer air. Deodorising experiments. Table III. In the third series of experiments the sewage was deodorised for 24 hours previous to each experiment. For the purposes of deodorising two sheds were erected, one in Piccadilly and one in Curzon-street higher up the sewer. Work was carried on at both sheds simultaneously. The deodorants used were manganate of soda and sulphuric acid in experiments I., II. and III., manganate of soda alone in IV., sulphurous acid in v. and VI., and carbolic acid in VII. and VIII. The method of deodorising with manganate of soda and sulphuric acid, manganate of soda alone, and sulphurous acid alone, was identical to that employed for some time past in deodorising the sewage during the summer months. In deodorising with carbolic acid the strength of the solution used was 0.5 per cent. and 500 gallons were delivered per hour from each shed. Observations as to the amount of water, carbonic acid, and micro-organisms in the fresh air and in the sewer air were also made during the employment of deodorants. It will be seen in Table III, that the number of organisms in fresh air was very low during the course of these experiments, which were carried out in January, February, and early March of this year. With the decrease in the number of organisms in the fresh air, we find a concomitant decrease in the number of micro-organisms in the sewer air. As was anticipated, the use of deodorants does not affect the relation between the number of organisms in fresh air and sewer air respectively, but although the quantity of deodorants employed was of course absolutely insufficient for complete disinfection of the sewage, I thought it advisable as well as interesting to ascertain what effect, if any, the various substances used exerted upon the organisms in the sewage itself. For this purpose I first of all made determinations of the number of micro-organisms present in the untreated sewage as it flowed past the staging, and next in the deodorised sewage. The results, which are the average of three separate determinations in each case, are given below— Organisms per C.C. Untreated sewage 2,618,000 3,179,000 Sewage deodorised with manganate of soda and sulphuric acid 720,000 1,040,000 Sewage deodorised with manganate of soda alone 620,000 Sewage deodorised with sulphurous acid 2,400,000 Sewage deodorised with carbolic acid 1,660,000 1,200,000 I do not put forward these experiments as in any way perfect, for it is manifest that the average number of micro-organisms deduced from the determinations of the number of micro-organisms on Nov. 20th and Dec. 2nd, would not hold good necessarily for sewage flowing three weeks or more later when the deodorising experiments were made; nevertheless, I contend that they do show in the case of manganate of soda and sulphuric acid, manganate of soda alone, and carbolic acid, a strong probability of these deodorants exercising a certain disinfecting action. 4 The reaction of the sewage in the two experiments with manganate of soda and sulphuric acid was distinctly acid, and to this acidity I ascribe in great measure the diminution in the number of microorganisms, for I have shown in another place (Report of the Medical Officer to the Local Government Board) that sulphuric acid has a powerful disinfectant action. With reference to the deodorising effect, manganate of soda and sulphuric acid completely removed the indescribable yet intensely disagreeable smell of sewer air, whereas manganate of soda alone is not nearly so efficient. Sulphurous acid, when present in sufficient quantity to remove all odour, becomes irritating to those engaged in the sewer, and I think its use, at any rate in the manner hitherto employed, is not to be recommended for another reason, viz., that unless there is a fairly constant current of air the deodorising effect is entirely localised. Carbolic acid used in the strength above mentioned produces an excellent result so far as odour is concerned. This is completely masked and the smell of the acid is not disagreeable, but there is some doubt whether it would be perfectly harmless to those exposed to it, if breathed for any considerable time. The positive results of these experiments are the following— I.—The micro-organisms in the sewer air are related to the micro-organisms in the air outside, and not to the micro-organisms of the sewage. II.-—In the air both within and without the sewer the forms of micro-organisms present are almost exclusively moulds and micrococci; on the contrary, the micro-organisms of sewage are for the most part bacilli. Of the latter sometimes as many as 25 per cent. very rapidly liquefy the gelatine on which they grow, whereas in the whole course of my experiments with fresh air and sewer air I only met with one colony, and that a micrococcus rapidly liquefying gelatine. III.—That for purposes of deodorising, manganate of soda and sulphuric acid and carbolic acid are the most efficient of the several chemicals tried, and setting aside the question of relative cost, the former is decidedly preferable for the reason stated above. The whole of my results point unmistakably to the conclusion that the principal, if not the only, source of micro-organisms in sewer air is the air without the sewer and not the sewage, and they also tend to prove that there is very little ground for supposing that the micro-organisms of sewage, in the absence of violent splashing, become disseminated in the sewer air. In carrying out this work I have made a very large number of cultivations of the various organisms met with, in order to study them with the microscope both in stained and unstained specimens. It is in this particular direction that my experiments are so much more complete than those of Drs. Carnelly and Haldane. In conclusion let me emphasize the fact that these observations only hold good for sewers in which the conditions are the same as those under which I experimented. What the condition of the air would be in sewers in which there is only an intermittent flow of sewage, or in which the sewage becomes stagnant and highly putrefactive, further experiment alone can show. If the Committee at any time see fit to further extend their investigations, it would be most desirable to determine exhaustively the effect of violent splashing on the micro-organisms of sewer air, and also to make a very minute study of the various organisms met with in sewer air and sewage. I am, Gentlemen, Yours very faithfully, May, 1892. J. Parry Laws. 5 Normal Sewer Air Experiments. Table I. Number of Experiment. Date of Experiment. Direction and Force of Wind. metrical pressure. Temperature (shade). ture of Sewer Air. Current of Air in Sewer. Quantity of Sewage. Vols. of CO2 in 10,000 Fresh Air. Vols. of CO2 in l0,000 Sewer Air. Time Experiment began. Time Experiment finished. Organisms in 10 litres of Fresh Air. Organisms in 10 litres of Sewer Air. Remarks. Moulds. Bacteria. Total. Moulds. Bacteria. Total. 1 1891 Aug. 14th W.N.W. Good breeze 30.08 68 67 2 ft. per second with flow More than normal. Not taken. 12.14 3.0 p.m. 5.30 p.m. 33 86 119 31 4 35 Fine dry day. 2 Aug. 17th S.W. Light breeze 29.82 70 73 Very slight and variable „ 2.54 16.04 11.0 a.m. 1.10 p.m. 92 18 110 175 19 194 Fine and warm. 3 Aug. 18th Very calm; morning variable 29.67 70 70 Almost dead calm „ 2.80 14.76 10.30 a.m. 12.30 p.m. 18 4 22 92.5 16.5 109 Sultry morning after heavy rain. 4 Sept. 9th S.E. Light breeze 30.17 – 63.5 1 ft. per second with flow Less than normal. 2.82 7.66 10.30 a.m. 12.50 p.m. 23 13 36 13.5 3 16.5 Very fine, heavy dew overnight. 5 Sept.10th S.E. Light breeze 30.19 85 64 2 ft. per second with flow „ 2.58 5.11 1.30 p.m. 4.0 p.m. 13 9 22 8 6.5 14.5 Very fine and very hot. 6 Sept.30th S.W. Moderate breeze 29.92 65 64 Less than 1ft. per second against flow „ 2.71 4.40 10.30 a.m. 1.0 p.m. 9 13 22 17 12 29 Very fine day. 7 Oct. 2nd W. Moderate breeze 29.89 59 64 Very slight, variable „ 2.67 5.43 10.30 a.m. 1.0 p.m. 24.5 6.5 31 16 13.5 29.5 „ „ 8 Oct. 27th E.S.E. Very strong breeze 30.02 – 60 Very slight with flow „ 3.18 7.64 7.64 8.65 – – – – – – – – Moderately fine. 6 Splashing Experiments. Table II. Number of Experiment Date of Experiment. Direction and Force of Wind. Barometrical pressure. Temperature (shade). Temperature of Sewer Air. Current of Air in Sewer. Quantity of Sewage. Vols. of CO2 in per 10.000 Fresh Air.. Vols. of CO2 in per 10.000 Fresh Air Time Experiment began. Time Experiment finished. Organisms in 10 litres of normal sewer air. Organisms in 10 litres of Sewer Air during splashing. Organisms in 10 litres of Sewer Air during splashing. Total. Remarks. Moulds. Bacteria Total. Moulds. Bacteria. Total. Moulds. Bacteria. 1 1891. Nov. 20th s.w. Fair breeze 29.90 – 55 2 ft. per second against How Less than normal – 13.86 12.34 12.30 p.m. 3.20 p.m. 17 5 22 20 0 8 feet 7 feet 7 12 65 4 feet 21 feet 86 Moderately fine day; sewer walls very wet. 2 Nov. 25th S.E. Moderate 29.78 – 55 3 ft. per second against flow Normal – 13.17 13.17 2.45 p.m. 4.45 p.m. 0 18 18 0 4 27 feet 33 0 8 7 feet 7 Fine day; no sewage had been flowing for two days owing to repairs. 3 Dec. 2nd S.W. Moderate 29.48 – 56.5 Slight to 3 ft. per second against flow Rather more than normal – 11.79 2.40 p.m. 5.0 p.m. 40 6 40 47 3 50 5 4 9 Fine day; sewage had been diverted for some days, owing to repairs; sewer walls very damp. 7 Deodorising1 Experiments. Table III. Number of Experiment.. Date of Experiment. Direction and Force of Wind. Barometrical pressure. Temperature (shade). Temperature of Sewer Air. Current of Air in Sewer. Quantity of Sewage. Vols. of C02 in 10,000 Fresh Air. Vols. of C02 in 10,000 Fresh Air Time Experiment began. Time Experiment finished. Organisms in 10 litres of Fresh Air. Organisms in 10 litres of Sewer Air. Remarks. Moulds. Bacteria Total. Moulds. Bacteria. Total. 1 1892. Jan. 28th S.E. strong 30.26 42 48 More than 2 ft. per second against flow Normal 3.37 10.05 11.30 a.m. 1.20 p.m. Not taken 0.5 8 8.5 Deodorising with manganate of soda and sulphuric acid. Fine day. 2 Feb. 3rd W. strong 29.45 40 54 1 ft. per second against flow „ 3.34 14.80 11.0 „ 1.45 „ 2 5 7 1 6 7 Do. do. do. 3 Feb. 10th S.W. light 30.35 49 51 Dead calm and with flow 1 ft. per second „ 3.80 22.44 11.0 „ 2.0 0 4.5 4.5 3.5 6.5 10 Do. do. very wet day and night before, sewage hardly coloured at the end of experiment 4 Feb. 17th N.E. strong 29.29 29.5 49.5 3 ft. per second against flow „ 2.91 7.64 11.0 „ 2.0 „ 6.5 2.5 9 0.5 8.5 9 Deodorising with manganate of soda only. Sewage highly coloured with deodorant. Snow on ground to depth of 1½ inches; snowed hard day before. 5 Feb. 25th S.E. moderate 29.91 47 50 2 ft. per second against flow Consider ably above normal 3.96 5.49 11.15 „ 2.0 „ 6.0 5 11 0.5 3 3.5 Wet, misty morning; deodorising with sulphurous acid; no smell of the acid observable. 6 Feb. 26th S.E. light 30.09 45 48 4 ft. per second against flow „ 3.04 5.67 12.0 „ 2.10 „ 9 10 19 0 10 10 Deodorised with sulphurous acid more effectual. Very dull and misty day. 7 Mar. 1st N.E. strong 29.89 40 50 With flow and variable Normal – 6.98 12.0 „ 2.0 „ Too wet 1 5 6 Deodorised with carbolic acid. Too wet to take observations in fresh air. Cold showers. 8 Mar. 2nd N.E. strong 30.07 31 49 Calm at first, then very strong 5 ft. per second „ – 5.94 12.0 „ 2.30 „ 10 8 18 1 5 6 Do. do.. snow showers. 8 SECOND REPORT TO THE MAIN DRAINAGE COMMITTEE OF THE LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL, on SEWER AIR INVESTIGATIONS. By J. PARRY LAWS, F.I.C. To the Main Drainage Committee. Gentlemen, In a former report submitted to your Committee an account was given of three series of experiments on sewer air, together with their results. The three series in question were experiments, Firstly, On normal sewer air; Secondly, On moderate splashing; and Thirdly, On the value of various deodorants. Their results, briefly summarised, were to the following effect— Firstly—When the air within the sewer was compared with the air outside in immediate relation with the sewer it was found that the bacteria present in the former were fewer in number, and that the carbonic acid was from two to ten times as great as in fresh air. No sulphuretted hydrogen was found. Secondly—Moderate splashing carried out so as to imitate the inflow of a lateral drain or house sewer produced no variation in the sewer air even within such a short radius as four feet from the disturbance. Thirdly—When deodorants were added to the sewage, or distributed in the sewer air, no effect was produced on the sewer air beyond the removal of, in most cases, the disagreeable smell. In some instances, however, the deodorants when added to the sewage had a marked effect upon the sewage itself, reducing very considerably the number of bacteria present. As to the character of the micro-organisms, those found in the sewer air are related to those that occur in fresh air, and consist chiefly of moulds and micrococci. On the contrary, those found in sewage are chiefly bacilli, and not so related. The present report deals with experiments directed to ascertain the following points— 1. Whether an increase in the velocity of the air current in a sewer beyond the limits met with under ordinary conditions would produce a concomitant increase in the number of micro-organisms. 2. Whether the conclusions arrived at from the experiments in large sewers hold good for small sewers when the flow of sewage is intermittent, and the velocity of the air current variable. 3. What influence, if any, stagnant and highly putrescent sewage has upon the number of micro-organisms in sewer air. 4. Whether the various micro-organisms collected from sewer air during the progress of all my experiments were identical with the micro-organisms isolated from fresh air in the same vicinity and at the same time. 1.—Influence of velocity experiments. Table I.—For the purposes of the first series of experiments, observations were made in the air shaft erected at Pimlico pumping-station with the object of ventilating the low-level sewer. Through the ventilating shaft, which feeds the boiler furnaces and which has a diameter of 2 feet, sewer air is drawn at a speed varying from 5 to 11 feet per second according to the condition and number of fires in use. Access was gained to the interior of the shaft by means of a small manhole situate about 60 feet from the furnace end of the shaft. The following determinations were made in the sewer air and fresh air as near as possible at the same time, viz., moisture, carbonic acid, number of micro-organisms, temperature, and velocity of the air current. In these experiments, as well as those to be subsequently described, nearly all the estimations were made in duplicate. In determining the number of microorganisms, one sterile tube was placed transversely in the air shaft, the other horizontally with its open end directed towards the air current. On reference to the table (Table I.), it will be seen that the velocity of the air current varied from a minimum of 5 feet to a maximum of 11 feet per second—the minimum of 5 feet in these experiments coincides with the maximum velocity mentioned in my previous report. In experiments 1 and 2 it was impossible, owing to the bad weather, to make any comparison with fresh air; it will be seen, however, that the number of micro-organisms is low in both instances ; the carbonic acid varied from 5.91 vols. to 28.25 vols. per 10,000. The results conclusively show that a considerable increase in the velocity in the air current does not produce an increase in the number of micro-organisms found in the sewer air. 2.— Experiments with 9-inch saver. Table II.—Owing to the difficulty of gaining access to such a small sewer when in actual use, an experimental sewer of the above dimensions and 80 feet long was laid in a suitable position in the pump room at Pimlico station (diagram 1). 9" Experimental Sewer. Diagram 1. Diagram 2. 9 The fall was made to correspond with the gradient used in the construction of sewers of this size, and the end A was conveniently placed for filling with sewage, which could be emptied when required by opening the outlet C. At B there was a 9-inch opening (provided with a tight fitting cover) through which the necessary apparatus could be placed in position; the lower end of the sewer was carried vertically upwards for 8 feet, and at the point D a small hole was drilled to admit a ⅜-inch steam pipe. By injecting high pressure steam through this pipe a current of air was drawn through the sewer, the velocity of which could be regulated with ease; when the steam-cock was fully open it attained a maximum of 15 feet per second. The following is the mode of experiment adopted—the sewer was first filled with sewage and allowed to remain fall for about a day, then emptied by opening the outlet C; after varying intervals a current of air of definite velocity was drawn through the sewer by means of the steam injector, and a. simultaneous determination made of the number of micro-organisms in the air surrounding the sewer,, and in the sewer itself. In the later experiments the sewer was allowed to remain empty for a lengthened period, comparative determinations being made from time to time to ascertain whether the walls had dried sufficiently to give off any of the micro-organisms clinging to them. The velocity of the air-current used in the above experiments was 5 feet and 15 feet respectively, the latter being far in excess of any current that would normally obtain in a sewer. The carbonic acid in the air within the sewer was not determined, inasmuch as it would have been practically identical with the carbonic acid in the air surrounding the sewer. On reference to Table II. it will be seen that in most cases the number of micro-organisms found in the air surrounding the sewer exceeds those found in the air within; in the only case in which the number of microorganisms found within the sewer exceeds in a marked degree the organisms found without, the increase is entirely due to moulds, and not to bacteria. It is really remarkable to find that no organisms are given off from the walls of a sewer which has been empty and open to the air at both ends for such a lengthened period as twelve days. The sewage with which the sewer had been kept full for several periods of 24 hours would contain no less than three to four million organisms per cubic centimetre, and immense numbers of these must of necessity have been clinging to the walls of the sewer. From this it is evident that the conclusions arrived at from my previous experiments in the King's Scholars' Pond sewer hold good for smaller sewers. 3.—Experiments on stagnant sewage. Tabic III. In this series of experiments the same 9-inch sewer was used, and at about a foot from the point B a dam was placed across the sewer occupying two-thirds of its sectional area (diagram 2). Sewage was then pumped in to the level of the dam and allowed to remain stagnant for several weeks. For the first sixteen days both ends of the sewer were kept open, then after the addition of a considerable quantity of solid sludge the ends were closed. From time to time comparative determinations were made similar to those described in the first series of experiments. It will be seen on examining Table III. that the maximum percentage of carbonic acid only reached 15.27 vols, per 10,000. This is probably explained by the fact that the air space in this experimental sewer being very small the air was more frequently changed. The number of micro-organisms in the sewer air in experiments 2 and 4 considerably exceeds the number of micro-organisms in the air without the sewer at the same time; this increase, in my opinion, loses its significance because it is due to an augmentation of the moulds and not of the bacteria; it is, however, difficult to offer any explanation of the cause as the determinations within and without the sewer were always made simultaneously. Fulham-road sewer. Table IV. An experiment was made on September 6th in this sewer, belonging to the Fulham Vestry, at a point close to the Town Hall. It may be within the recollection of the Committee that owing to many complaints as to the condition of the sewers in this locality, Mr. Dibdin made several determinations of the amount of carbonic acid and ammonia in two of the Fulham Vestry sewers, and also in the Council's main sewer into which they discharged their contents. The results he obtained revealed an unusual state of things, the carbonic acid in the Fulham-road sewer reaching, on August 16th, the abnormally high percentage of 93.10 vols, per 10,000, the highest hitherto recorded as far as I am aware. The sewer was only some 400 yards long, its upper end being a dead end, and its lower end discharging its contents into the Council's main sewer. It contained a large amount of heavy deposit and was otherwise in a most filthy condition. It was practically without ventilation, as nearly all the ventilators had been closed for some time past owing to the number of complaints about the bad smell. In spite of all these apparently unfavourable conditions it will be noticed, on reference to Table IV., that the number of micro-organisms is particularly low, only averaging a little over one per litre of air. A comparative determination of the micro-organisms in the air above the sewer was not made, as no convenient place could be found free from the dust caused by the heavy traffic in the vicinity. 4. The question of identity of the various micro-organisms isolated from sewer air and fresh air. A satisfactory answer to this question is of the utmost importance in deciding whether sewer air is dangerous or not. There are two possible sources of the micro-organisms in sewer air. They may, in the first place, be derived from the sewage and sewer walls, or secondly, from fresh air gaining access to the sewer by ventilation. Were their source the sewage or walls of the sewer, their number would increase with the length of sewer traversed by the air, or with the length of time during which the air was in contact with the sources of contamination. It has, however, been abundantly proved that sewer air almost invariably contains a smaller number of micro-organisms than fresh air in the same vicinity and at the same time, and, moreover, [2] 10 that an increase or decrease in the number of organisms in fresh air is followed by a concomitant increase or decrease in the number of organisms in sewer air. These facts furnish presumptive evidence that the source of the organisms in sewer air is the fresh air gaining access by ventilation, and not the sewage and sewer walls. Inasmuch as the danger of sewer air is not governed simply by the number of the micro-organisms present, but also by the question of their harmfulness or otherwise, it was necessary to make a careful and systematic study of all the various organisms met with during the progress of my investigations. This has involved an immense amount of labour, which has this year been considerably increased by the excessive heat experienced; large numbers of my pure cultivations on gelatine were rendered nugatory by the high temperature prevailing in August and part of September. In the process adopted for determining the number of micro-organisms, a known quantity of air was aspirated through a sterile tube containing two sterile plugs composed of powdered sugar and glass wool. These plugs, which filter the air, were after the completion of the experiment transferred to two circular cultivating plates containing nutrient gelatine in a liquid state; after careful admixture the gelatine was solidified by cooling, each organism thereby becomes fixed and, if capable of growing and multiplying in that medium, forms a colony which after the lapse of four to six days is evident to the naked eye. In almost every instance this colony consists of a pure growth of one species only ; these colonies were examined microscopically, and re-sown in sterile cultivating tubes containing nutrient gelatine or agar-agar for further study. In order to identify and name the various species, it is necessary to carefully observe their manner and rapidity of growth, their effect upon the nutrient gelatine, and whether they form any pigment or induce any special chemical change. The following lists give the names of the various organisms isolated by me from sewer air and fresh air, and classified under the different headings of micrococci, bacilli, moulds, toruke, and cladothrices. The order in which the names are arranged under each separate heading indicates the relative frequency with which the various species have occurred. Micro-organisms in fresh air. Micrococci. Sarcina Lutea Micrococcus Aurantiacus Micrococcus Candicans Diplococcus Citreus Conglomeratus Diplococcus Roseus Sarcina Rosea Pediococcus Acidi Lactici Micrococcus Acidi Lactici Micrococcus Flavus Desidens Diplococcus Flavus Liquefaciens Tardus Bacilli. Bacillus Subtilis Bacillus Fluorescens Liquefaciens Bacillus Ochraceus Bacillus Mesentericus Fuscus Bacillus Arborescens Moulds. Penicillium Glaucum Aspergillus Glaucus Aspergillus Albus Aspergillus Repens Aspergillus Nigrescens Aspergillus Nidulans Brown Mould Torula. Pink Torula Black Torula White Torula Cladothrices. Cladothrix Dichotoma Cladothrix Rubra Micro-organisms in sewer air. Micrococci. Sarcina Lutea Sarcina Aurantiaca Micrococcus Candicans Diplococcus Citreus Conglomeratus Pediococcus Cerevesise Staphylococcus Cereus Albus Micrococcus Cremoides Staphylococcus Cereus Flavus Bacilli. Bacillus Subtilis Bacillus Aureus Bacillus Arborescens Bacillus Acidi Lactici Bacillus Helvolus Bacillus Nigrescens Moulds. Penicillium Glaucum Aspergillus Glaucus Aspergillus Albus Aspergillus Repens Aspergillus Nigrescens Aspergillus Nidulans Brown Mould Torula. None Cladothrices. Cladothrix Dichotoma As I have stated in my previous report, the organisms of fresh air and sewer air consist chiefly of moulds and micrococci, whereas the organisms of sewage so far as my limited observations go consist essentially of moulds and bacilli. I have found the ratio of micrococci to bacilli in fresh air and sewer 11 air to be about five of the former to one of the latter, a ratio which would in all probability be reversed in the case of sewage. There are two points with reference to the organisms in sewer air to which I wish to call special attention—firstly, the absence of bacillus coli communis and micrococcus ureae, two organisms which must be present in sewage in immense numbers; secondly, the almost entire absence of any organisms capable of very rapidly liquefying gelatine, the only exceptions being the common hay bacillus (bacillus subtilis) and a micrococcus mentioned in ray first report. In sewage on the other hand a large number of organisms, for the most part bacilli, possess this property of very rapidly liquefying gelatine. All the micro-organisms tabulated above belong to that class known as non-pathogenic or harmless bacteria, and with one exception are common in air and water. Two organisms, a bacillus and a micrococcus, concerning which there was some slight suspicion as to their non-pathogenic properties, I submitted to Dr. F. Andrewes, as instructed by your chairman. From his report it is seen that the bacillus was one of the many lactic acid ferments, and that the micrococcus which occurred only once during the course of these investigations was the staphylococcus cereus flavus of Passet, a rather rare organism occurring in pus, but quite devoid of any pathogenic property. The results of these further investigations strengthen very considerably the conclusion arrived at from my previous experiments, viz., that the micro-organisms in the sewer air are related to the micro-organisms in the air outside and not to the micro-organisms of the sewage. As our knowledge of the various organisms occurring in sewage under varying conditions is so limited, it is in my opinion most desirable they should be submitted to careful examination. A knowledge of the various species would in all probability considerably strengthen the conclusion that the micro-organisms in sewer air are derived solely from the fresh air gaining access to the sewer by ventilation. Although one is led almost irresistibly to the conclusion that the organisms found in sewer air probably do not constitute any source of danger, it is impossible to ignore the evidence, though it be only circumstantial, that sewer air in some instances has had some causal relation to zymotic disease. It is quite conceivable, though at present no evidence is forthcoming, that the danger of sewer air causing disease is an indirect one; it may contain some highly poisonous chemical substance, possibly of an alkaloidal nature, which though present in but minute quantities may, nevertheless, produce in conjunction with the large excess of carbonic acid a profound effect upon the general vitality. I am, Gentlemen, Yours very faithfully, 7th December, 1893. J. Parry Laws. 12 ]:) TABLE I. No. and date of experiment. Direction and force of wind. Barometrical pressure. Temperature. Velocity of air current, in feet per second. Vols, of CO2 per 10,000. Fresh air. Vols, of CO2 per 10,000, Sewer air. Organisms in 10 litres of fresh air. Organisms in 10 litres of sewer air. Remarks. Shade. Sewer. Moulds. Bacteria. Total. Moulds. Bacteria. Total. 1893. 1. January 13th N.E. strong. 30.01 — 55 Velocity of the air current determined with the anemometer varied from 5 ft. to 11 ft. per second. — 28.25 Not determined. 1 4 5 The weather was too bad to make observations in fresh air on the 13th and 30th of January. 2. January 30th S. strong. 30.04 — 55 — 14.56 Not determined. 5 15 20 3. March 8th Calm. 30.33 60 51 2.54 15.77 28.5 9.0 37.5 5 14 19 Fine day. 4. March 13th N.W. slight. 29.72 62 53 3.56 5.91 12.5 8.5 21.0 7 15 22 The sewer was fully charged,and the air was drawn from the penstock chamber, hence 5. August 30th N.W. slight. 30.15 78 62 2.67 17.31 15.5 17 32.5 10 31.5 41.5 Fine day, but showery. TABLE II. No. and date of experiment. Barometrical pressure. Temperature of sewer air. Velocity of air current in feet per second. Length of time sewer was kept full of sewage. Lapse of time since sewer was emptied. Vols. of CO2 per 10,000 Pump room air. Organisms in 10 litres of pump room air. Organisms in 10 litres of sewer air. Remarks. Moulds. Bacteria. Total. Moulds. Bacteria. Total. 1893. 1. May 16th 29.82 64.0 5 ft. 24 hours 24 hours 3.32 28 18 46 15.5 18.5 34 Sewer was filled on May 14th at noon emptied May 15th 2. May 18th 29.60 60.75 5 ft. 24 hours 3 days 3.43 20.5 12 32.5 22.0 14 36 Sewer not re-filled since last experiment. 3. June 8th 30.36 61.50 5 ft. 29 hours 45 hours 4.58 47 17.5 64.5 37 10 47 Sewer re-filled on June 5th at 12 noon emptied on 6th at 5 p.m. 4. June 13th 29.98 62.0 5 ft. 29 hours 7 days 4.32 17.5 12 29.5 12.5 12.5 25 Sewer wa3 re-filled at 5 p.m. this day emptied at 11 a.m. on 14th. 5. June 16th 30.13 65.0 15 ft. 18 hours 2 days 5.60 2 15 17 1 14 15 Sewer not refilled until July. 6. July 13th 29.69 63.75 15 ft. 19 hours 24 hours 4.70 3.5 9 12.5 2 6.5 8.5 Sewer filled on July 11th at 5 p.m. emptied July 12th 7. July 18th 30.02 65.50 15 ft. 19 hours 6 days 4.50 9 12 21 12 24 36 Sewer not filled since July 12th. 8. July 21st 29.74 68.0 15 ft. 19 hours 9 days 3.82 7.5 23 30.5 23.5 12.5 36 Do. do. 9. July 27th 30.16 65.0 15 ft. 19 hours 12 days 8.14 19.5 24 43.5 45.5 19.5 65 Do. do. TABLE III No. and date of experiment. Barometrical pressure. Temperature of sewer air. Velocity of air current in feet per second. Vols, of CO, per 10,000. Pump room air. Vols, of CO, per 10,000. Sewer air. Organisms in 10 litres of pump room air. Organisms in 10 litres of sewer air. Remarks. Moulds. Bacteria. Total. Moulds. Bacteria. Total. 1893. 1. Aug. 22nd 29.86 70 3 ft. 7.38 13.23 26.5 24.5 51 51.5 17.5 69 The sewer was filled with sewage to the level of the dam at 10.30 a.m. on the 21st. 2. Aug. 24th 30.07 67.5 3 ft. 4.56 6.61 47 31 78 86 37.5 123.5 Sewer open at both ends. 3. Aug. 28th 30.27 63.5 Very slight. 8.40 11.45 20 41 61 14.5 13 27.5 4. Sept. 1st 30.15 68 Do. 3.56 8.14 18.5 10.5 29 41 8 19 On August 30th two bucketfuls of heavy deposit were placed in sewer. 5. Sept. 22nd 29.70 64 No current. 3.05 12.72 14.5 25.5 40 2 12.5 14.5 At the conclusion of the last experiment on Sept. 1st, two more bucketfuls of heavy deposit were added and both ends of the sewer were closed. 6. Oct. 5th 29.20 64.5 1 ft. 10.69 15.27 10 5 15 12.5 7 19.5 14 15 TABLE IV. No. and date of experiment. Direction and force of wind. Barometrical pressure. Temperature. Velocity of air current. Vols, of CO2 per 10,000. Pump room air. Vols, of CO2 per 10,000. Sewer air. Organisms in 10 litres of fresh air. Organisms in 10 litres of sewer air. Remarks. Shade. Sewer. Moulds. Bacteria. Total. Moulds. Bacteria. Total. 1893. 1. August 10th ... ... ... ... ... ... 68.40 ... ... ... ... ... ... 2. August 16th ... ... ... ... ... ... 93.10 ... ... ... ... ... ... 3. September 6th ... 30.00 82 56.5 ... ... 46.33 ... ... ... 1 11.5 12.5 Extremely disagreeable smell in sewer. Very fine hot day. With the Medical Officer of Healths Compliments. Public Health Department, Spring Gardens, S.W. 3469] London County Council. Report on Dust Destructors by the Medical Officer and the Engineer. Spring Gardens, S.W. 10th May, 1893. Prepared in accordance with the following instruction of the Public Health and Housing Committee— "Medical Officer and Engineer instructed to make a thorough inquiry into the whole "subject of dust destructors." In order to comply with the instruction of the committee, we thought it desirable to obtain full particulars with regard to the present mode of dust disposal by the various vestries and district boards of works, as well as from those provincial towns in which dust destructors have been employed. We also thought it desirable to ascertain by personal inspection some of the details relating to dust destructors of the four principal types in use, and for that purpose delegated our assistants, Mr. Santo Crimp, M.Inst.C.E., and Dr. W. H. Hamer, to visit Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester, Oldham, Bradford, and Leeds, as well as some of those depots in London where destructors are in use. The information received in response to circulars sent out by us has been tabulated and forms Appendix I. of this report. Dealing first with the subject as it affects the metropolis, it has been calculated from the data referred to, that the quantity of dust collected yearly by the various authorities amounts on an average of several districts to about 260 tons per 1,000 of the population, the actual quantities varying, however, rather widely in different districts. With regard to the composition of average London ash-bin refuse the following analyses taken from a paper read at the Sanitary Institute on February 10th, 1892, by Mr. Jos. Russell, may be of interest— Component Parts. Average per 1,000 loads. Percentages by weight. Tons. cwts. qrs. lbs. Breeze (cinder and ashes) 611 3 0 4 63.69 Fine dust 187 1 0 8 19.51 Vegetable, animal, and various mineral matters 44 3 3 20 4.61 Waste paper 41 1 1 20 4.28 Straw and fibrous material 30 18 1 6 3.22 Bottles 5,000 0.96 Coal and Coke 8 0 2 14 0.84 Tins 7 11 2 22 0.79 Crockery 5 5 0 0 0.55 Bones 4 12 1 1 0.48 Broken glass 4 11 2 2 0.47 Rags 3 15 3 16 0.39 Iron 2 0 0 20 0.21 100.00 It will be observed on referring to Appendix II. that dust destructors of the modern type were first used in 1876, and that since that date there has been a steady increase in the number built year by year, and that towns, such as Liverpool, Manchester and Leeds, have either increased the number in use, or are now doing so, which proves that in these cases the destructor is recognised as the most suitable appliance for the treatment of the ash-bin refuse. By its operations the matter collected is generally reduced to about one-third its original weight and to about one-fourth its original bulk. The organic and combustible matters are burnt, and the residue consists of ash and clinker free from matters which can become offensive, and which are, if the destructor is properly used, purified from possible sources of contagion. Before describing the different types of destructors we may briefly consider the reasons which have led to their adoption. Up to within a comparatively recent period it was a common practice for adventurous builders and others to excavate gravel and sand upon the site of proposed dwellings, and to allow the excavation to be filled in with the refuse collected from ashbins and other sources; roads were also formed with layers of this material, but happily these practices, at variance with a proper observance of the laws of health, are now looked upon with great disfavour, or are prohibited altogether. Brickfields again, were in operation in the midst of what is now suburban London, and facilities for dust disposal were not difficult to procure, but these brickfields have for the most part been closed, and hence, public authorities find it more difficult as time goes on to dispose of their refuse matters, which are produced in increasing quantities with the growth of population. In the Metropolis itself, your committee is aware that dust destructors are being slowly but surely adopted, as the best means of solving a difficult problem. It is not necessary to trouble your committee with a history of the evolution of the destructor; refuse has been burnt in furnaces of rude construction for a long period of time, and there have been No.100 .—Price 6d. Sold by Steel and Jones, Spring Gardens, S.W. 6786 2 many failures of appliances of a more pretentious character, such as the "Beehive" at Richmond, and others, which need not be further referred to. There are, however, four types of destructors in general use, which we think should be fully described, each of which is more or less successful when properly used in effecting the desired purpose. We propose to describe Fryer's destructor first, because this one is more widely used than the others, although it is not in our opinion a perfect appliance. The subjoined drawing shews the details of Fryer's destructor, an example of which has been erected at the Barking outfall works by. the Main Drainage Committee, for the purpose of burning the solid matters taken out of the sewage by means of screens. It has been found well adapted for this purpose. Fryer's destructor usually consists of a group of cells, each internally about 9 ft. long, and 5 ft. wide, covered by a segmental fire-brick arch, 3 ft. 6 in. high. The furnace bars are inclined with the slope towards the front, the usual fall being about 1 in 3, and the bottom is usually of fire-brick, forming a dead plate at the back for a distance of about 4 ft., when fire-bars take the place of the hearth for the remainder of the furnace. The material to be dealt with is fed into the furnace by means of a hopper and is from time to time raked down to the fire bars where combustion takes place. A sloping roadway leading from the ground level to the top of the furnaces forms a part of the construction in this and other types of destructors. The furnace is effective in reducing about 8 tons of refuse per cell per 24 hours to dust and clinker, which latter is often a useful and saleable product. There is one feature in connexion with this form of furnace, however, which militates against its use from the nuisance point of view, and it is this, that the outlets for the products of combustion are at the back, and that whilst a charge is burning upon the furnace bars the next charge lies upon the dead hearth at the back near the outlet flue, where it undergoes drying and partial decomposition, with the result that offensive vapours are given off, and these pass into the flue without being exposed to sufficient heat to render them inoffensive, and in some cases have produced a nuisance. A second furnace called a "cremator" has therefore in many cases been placed in the flue leading to the chimney shaft for the purpose of resolving the organic matters present in the vapour; but the greatly increased cost consequent upon the introduction of the cremator has led to its disuse altogether in some cases. We were informed at Hornsey, for instance, that the cremator was not used because the cost of burning the refuse was increased by nearly 50 per cent., which statement, so far as increased cost is concerned, was confirmed by our inquiries at Bradford. The next type of destructor to be described is Warner's as used at Hornsey and elsewhere. The furnace is very like Fryer's, but the details have been improved as regards the means of charging, and controlling the vapour given off. We observed at some places that when the furnace doors were thrown open for the purpose of withdrawing the clinker, a fierce draught through the furnace was produced which carried fine ashes and charred paper through the flues and up the chimney, from which latter they escaped in sufficient quantities to be easily recognised. At Hornsey, in the Warner destructor, the dampers in the furnace flues are closed before the furnace doors are opened for the purpose of clinkering, and the evils referred to are remedied. As a further precaution against the escape of dust, baffle walls and dust pits have been constructed in the main flue, and we were informed that complaints with regard to this destructor had not been received, although houses letting at about £80 a year are within a quarter of a mile of its site. We cannot, however, regard this form of furnace as being altogether free from the evils pointed out as affecting Fryer's destructor, because the outlets for the products of combustion are at the back of the furnace, in close proximity to the inlet for the refuse to be burnt. The furnace in use at Manchester, designed by Mr. Whiley, the superintendent of the cleansing department of the Manchester Corporation, is of ingenious construction, and with such improvements as may be found advisable or desirable jn practice, seems likely to prove an excellent appliance. On referring to the drawing, it will be observed that the material to be burnt is introduced into the furnace by means of a shoot; it falls upon fire-bars to which a rocking motion is imparted, and it is slowly carried forward for the whole length of the furnace, the combustible matters being destroyed as the material traverses the furnace, whilst the clinker drops through the door provided for the purpose at the front end of the destructor. The outlet for the products of combustion appears to be rather too near the shoot for the crude material, but as forced draught is employed by means of a Root's blower, the heat in the furnace is so intense that the arch of the furnace glows, and it is perhaps possible that the vapours given off by the partially burnt refuse are decomposed in passing through the furnace flues. The fact that the Manchester Corporation are now providing a very large installation of this form of destructor, after having given it an extended trial, must be regarded as evidence of the value of this appliance. If, upon further experience, the machine—for so it may be designated—proves successful, it will no doubt be largely adopted by reason of its automatic action, which reduces manual labour to the minimum. The next type to be noted is the "Horsfall," as in use at Oldham. A section of this form of destructor is given herewith, and it will be observed that whilst the general features of Fryer's destructor are retained, the details differ very widely, and more particularly with regard to the outlets for the products of combustion. These are placed at the opposite end to that at which the material to be burnt is introduced, and consequently have to pass over the hottest part of the furnace; moreover, a steam blast is used in connection with a closed ashpit, and as a result the temperature of the furnace is so high that at Oldham the lining was observed to be glowing, and there can be no doubt but that in furnaces of this type, the decomposition of the organic and combustible matters is so perfect that no nuisance is likely to arise from its use. At Leeds, the then Borough Engineer, erected a set of Fryer's destructors in 1876, but more recently Mr. Hewson, the present Borough Engineer, has constructed another sot from his own designs, a section of which is given herewith. It will be observed that the general features of both the Fryer and Horsfall furnace have been retained, but there is a great 3 improvement in detail, as regards Fryer's. The material to be burnt is introduced, as in the case of the others, at the back, and the outlets for the products of combustion are, as in Horsfall's, near the front; a steam blast is employed, as in Horsfall's, and the interior of the furnace is so hot that combustion is very perfect. In this installation we had an opportunity of testing the temperature in the small flues leading from the furnaces to the main flues, and found it to exceed 1,500° Fahr. The actual temperature could not be ascertained, as the pyrometer was only adapted to temperatures below 1,500° Fahr.; but it is certain that with such temperatures the empyreumatic vapours given off, whilst the material is being burnt upon the furnace, will be decomposed before entering the main flue. We could not help forming the opinion that this form of destructor is one of the most perfect in operation. We may say generally that we found in some cases alterations had been made or were being made in Fryer's as well as in other forms of destructor; they were, however, mainly in the direction either of saving labour, or in improving the outlets for the products of combustion. At Liverpool, for instance, Mr. Boulnois, the City Engineer, had made an opening on the top of the furnace of Fryer's destructor, in order to admit of the material being more easily placed upon the furnace bars, rocking bars had also been adopted in lieu of fixed furnace bars, and these were operated from time to time by hand labour in order to break up the clinker; but such bars—differing perhaps in pattern—are also in use at Bradford, Leicester and elsewhere. These are improvements in detail which add to the general usefulness of the appliance, without affecting its principle. We may remark, that at Liverpool, steam-hoppers are also employed in the removal of part of the house refuse to sea, but there are interruptions to the work during periods of stormy weather, by reason of which, the material accumulates in such a manner as to render this method undesirable, and as a matter of fact more dust destructors are now being built at Liverpool, the cost of burning and of taking it to sea being about the same. With regard to the disposal of the ashes and clinker, there is in some towns a demand for it when ground with lime and made into mortar; at Manchester, for instance, it is readily disposed of either to the Works Department of the City, or to builders, who pay 4s. per ton for it; but what is a useful product in one locality is not in demand in another, and beyond indicating its suitability for mortar, for hard core for roads, and for other like purposes, we venture to think it is not necessary to go. There is one point with regard to which something may be said, and that is the adaptability of the destructor as a power producer, when the appliance is provided with boilers. In this direction we found practice differed somewhat. At Birmingham, for instance, multitubular boilers are set in such a manner as to form the top of the furnace, and it is found in practice that 1 lb. of refuse will evaporate 1.79 lbs. of water, that is to say, that as a steam producer, the refuse is about one-fifth the value of an equal weight of coal. At Manchester as well as at Birmingham, large quantities of steam are used in drying down the contents of the pails—which are still largely used in lieu of water-closets, and this steam is produced by means of either Lancashire boilers with forced draught, or boilers of the kind mentioned as being in use at Birmingham, and fed with ash-bin refuse, but the temperatures in the furnaces are naturally lower than in those cases in which destruction of the refuse is the main object sought, as at Leeds for instance. At this latter town, as also in many others, a multitubular boiler is placed in the flues between the furnaces and the chimney shaft, and it will be obvious to the Committee that the power thus generated mav be utilized in any of the numerous objects which may be most desirable in each particular case. We do not think your Committee would wish us to enter further into a dissertation on the calorific value of ash-bin refuse, because this must necessarily vary with the character of the district, in which it is collected; for instance, we should not expect to find so much fuel in the refuse collected from working class dwellings as from those in which servants are employed, because it is a matter of common knowledge that the same care is not exercised with regard to coal consumption by servants as by those persons who have to consider its cost. Again, in the case of suburban districts, garden refuse is commonly placed in the ash-bins, and the material collected differs widely in composition in summer from that in winter. The question of dealing with refuse by burning remains now to be discussed more particularly from the point of view of nuisance production. Inasmuch as the history of the attempts made to burn refuse without causing nuisance only extends over a period of some 16 or 17 years, it follows that many of the earlier types of destructor are still in existence, and a discussion of the merits of the appliances in use at the present day involves the consideration of widely divergent types of furnace of very varying degrees of efficiency as far as nuisance prevention is concerned. Fifteen years ago the destructor was not regarded with much favour. Dr. Ballard, in that portion of his report to the Medical Officer of the Local Government Board on effluvium nuisances which is embodied in the annual report of the year 1878, prefaces his remarks upon the burning of refuse by saying, "I have seen several attempts made to destroy organic and combustible refuse by burning without creating a nuisance, but for the most part they have proved failures." Dr. Ballard, however, describes in detail the then recently-patented Fryer's Destructor, which he saw in use at Leeds, and quotes the favourable opinion of the appliance entertained by the sanitary officers of that town. The example set by Leeds was followed by other large towns, and Mr. Codrington, Engineering Inspector of the Local Government Board, in a report on the Destruction of Town Refuse, published in 1888, ten years later than Dr. Ballard's report, deals with twenty depots at which destructors had been erected. He writes, "Experience has shown that town refuse can be effectually burned in destructors and other furnaces without causing nuisance or offence at or about the works themselves," though he adds complaints are received of "fine dust and sometimes of charred paper proceeding from the chimney and falling at some little distance off," and again of "an offensive smell which, under certain conditions of the atmosphere, can be recognised at some distance on the leeward side of the chimney." In fact the experience of ten years had convinced most of those who had carefully investigated the subject that the destructor had established a claim to consideration. There are now some 40 sanitary authorities throughout the country which have wholly or partially 4 substituted for the older system the method of disposal by fire, and in London the City Commissioners of Sewers, the District Board of Whitechapel, the Vestry of Battersea, the Vestry of Hampstead and the Woolwich Local Board have erected destructors, while several other sanitary authorities within the county are contemplating doing so. With a view to ascertaining the experience of medical officers of health in whose districts destructors have been erected with regard to complaints of nuisance, a circular letter of inquiry has been sent out, and the replies which have been received are tabulated in Appendix iii. A point to be borne in mind in giving due weight to the presence or absence of complaints with regard to any particular destructor is the character of the neighbourhood in which it is situated. The cost of leading the refuse to the depot has determined in most instances that the destructor shall be in a fairly central situation. A reference to the appendix will show that in many cases there are inhabited houses in close contiguity to it. This is not perhaps a matter of such importance as might at first sight appear, for provided that the chimney shaft be sufficiently high, experience shows that if complaints of nuisance are received they do not proceed from inhabitants in the immediate vicinity, but from those who live at some considerable distance from the depot. No doubt, other things being equal, exception is least likely to be taken to a destructor situated in the centre of a manufacturing district, and it should be remembered that when a depot is thus placed, it is possible that the absence of complaints of nuisance is in part attributable to this cause, and such absence does not necessarily imply that the means adopted for preventing nuisance are altogether worthy of imitation. An examination of the replies tabulated in the appendix will show that continued complaints of smell or dust have not been forthcoming in the majority of instances, and complaints that manufacturing processes have been deleteriously affected by the destructor are still more infrequent. In several instances we were informed that there was much local opposition to the establishment of a destructor when the scheme was in contemplation, and in some cases complaints of dust and smoke seem to have come to hand before any refuse was burnt in the furnaces. It is a much more difficult matter than might at first sight appear to localise and trace to its source a given nuisance, and it is quite possible that in some instances the destructor has been accused of producing a smell which was really attributable to some other cause. The manager of a gas factory who complained that the neighbouring destructor brought the gas works into discredit is certainly to be complimented on his ingenuity. Nuisance from dust stands on a somewhat different footing, and hence the complaint of the proprietor of a vinery, and the complaint which we were told was received from a sugar manufactory, would appear to constitute a serious charge against the destructors concerned. The complaints with respect to pieces of charred paper are of quite unmistakeable importance. The most interesting information given in the appendix, is that which relates to the means which the several medical officers of health believe to have been effectual in doing away with or minimising nuisance. In one case there is an absolute confession of failure, it being "intended to remove the destructor to the sewage works, where it will be at some distance from inhabited houses." In a few instances a grid or screen has been placed in the flue, this of course implies the admission that the combustion in the furnace is far from complete. Some of the replies state that benefit has accrued from an improved system of firing. Six medical officers of health are of opinion that Jones' Fume Cremator is effectual in minimising or securing the complete removal of any cause of offence; two state that cremators form part of the destructor plant, but that they are not used; another medical officer of health is not satisfied with Jones' cremator; three attach importance to the use of the forced blast produced by steam jets, and one thinks it desirable that the unburnt refuse should not be heated before combustion. Our own observation has led us to attach special importance to the two points last named. In our opinion any arrangement which makes it possible for the imperfectly heated gases from drying refuse to escape into the flue without being compelled to pass through the hottest part of the furnace, is an imperfect one. It is true that such gases may be completely burnt by subsequent exposure to the heat of a cremator, but the most satisfactory and economical method appears to be to secure the most complete combustion possible in the cell itself. We regard the use of forced draught as a most effective means of preventing nuisance. We have already alluded to the temperatures in the flues at Leeds. Dr. Spottiswoode Cameron, the Medical Officer of Health of that city, gives in his annual report for 1891 the results of some experiments of considerable interest. A comparison was made between the temperatures registered in the Kidacrestreet destructors with and without the use of the steam jets. The pyrometers were placed in each instance in the side flues between the furnaces, and the average of 24 observations without steam jets was 1118° Fahr., and the average of 21 observations with steam jets was 1464° Fahr. Dr. Cameron writes, "The observed temperatures with the jets were 346° Fahr., above those without, but taking into account the fact that upon 17 occasions in the one case against 3 in the other the temperature was too high to be registered, the real difference would be nearer 500° Fahr." At Oldham a series of experiments by the Messrs. Watson, based on the principle of the method of mixtures showed that the average temperature of the mattrass chamber through which the hot gases pass on their way to the boiler was 2019° Fahr., the minimum being 1654° Fahr., and the maximum 2346° Fahr. The use of the steam jet is said to prolong the life of the fire bars; on the other hand, it has been objected to on account of the noise which it produces, and it does not appear to be capable of application to all forms of cell. At Hornsey, where the exit flues are at the back of the furnace, close to the feed hoppers, we were told that its use had to be discontinued, as it led to firing of the refuse in the hoppers. The amount of heat to which a given portion of refuse is subjected is determined by two factors, the temperature and the duration of exposure The latter is only a very short period in the case of 5 gases and small liquid and solid particles carried off from a charge of refuse freshly deposited in the furnace, and it is clear that in a perfect destructor the temperature attained ought to be such as to secure complete combustion even of those particles which most rapidly effect their escape to the flue. It may be moreover that the temperature must reach a certain point to decompose the offensively smelling compounds, so that it is not safe to argue that 10 seconds exposure to a temperature of 750° Fahr. is equivalent to 5 seconds exposure to a temperature of 1,500° Fahr. In dealing with the question it is not possible to lay down any hard and fast rule. One cannot say that a furnace cell should secure a certain minimum time of exposure and a certain minimum average temperature. When, however, the conditions are such that any portion of refuse must, before reaching the shaft, pass through the hottest part of the fire, and through a considerable extent of flue lined with glowing brickwork, and when the temperature of the fire and of the portions of the flue adjoining the cell are raised to such an extent as can be secured by the use of the steam blast, one cannot fail to be impressed with the fact that the conditions which then obtain are such as to render it extremely unlikely that any nuisance should result. No discussion of the destructor, from the point of view of nuisance production, would be complete which did not deal with the imperfections of the existing alternative systems of dust disposal. The processes carried on in a London dust contractor's yard have not undergone much alteration since the following description of Dr. Ballard was written:— "On a load of dust being upset from the dust cart upon the surface of the yard some men and boys proceed to sort it. They are each provided with a fork and an instrument called a 'drag,' which has a short handle and three cast iron teeth, set about three inches apart, and with these they fork and drag the heap over, so as to separate from it obvious pieces of vegetable and animal refuse, bones, rags, paper, iron, crockery, and glass. These are distributed, some of them into heaps, others of them into baskets; the bones are put into a bin or heap in the yard by themselves for sale to bone boilers. The rags and paper are also usually set aside for sale ; the iron and old tins are always set aside for sale, and usually also the glass, while the broken crockery, brickbats, &c., are laid in a heap to be sold as material for making new roads. What is left consists of cinders, ashes, and little bits of unburnt coal, and the next process is to sift this. The sifting is performed usually by women, who sit on or close to the heap, having one or more baskets by their side, and a riddle in their hands. A shovelful from the heap is shaken in the riddle, and, the ashes and dust having passed through, what remains upon the riddle is examined, and bones, potatoes, bits of iron, &c., not removed by the first dragging process, are picked out and thrown each into its appropriate basket; the cinders and coal now remaining on the riddle are thrown on a separate heap, being then technically known as 'breeze.' The following are the terms under which the matters of a dust heap are known technically, after they are separated from one another:— soft core,' i.e., vegetable and animal refuse; 'hard core,' i.e., broken crockery, brickbats, &c., and sometimes glass, old shoes, bits of rag, &c.; 'breeze' and 'ashes.' " The sorting process is a degrading occupation. The women employed are often seen covered almost to the waist with refuse, and they continually inhale into their lungs air polluted by the surrounding accumulations of dust. From some cause, avoidable or unavoidable, large heaps of material are almost invariably found in a contractor's yard, and even with the best management a long continued frost must interfere with the process of removal by barge, upon which London is so largely dependent. Again, the progress of offensive cargoes on their slow journey down the canal taints the atmosphere and pollutes the water, and when the destination is ultimately reached, the question of rendering the material innocuous still remains unanswered. It is true that in many instances the sorted refuse admits of useful application, but the supply has been so much in excess of the demand of late years that it not infrequently happens that the bulk of the material commands no price, and the only question is how to get rid of it. Under these circumstances the natural solution is to shoot it in some sparsely inhabited district where public opinion is not strong enough to effectually resent its being deposited. The method of destruction by fire has in its favour the fact that it implies that the refuse is rendered innocuous at the depot where the destructor is situated, and in this respect stands in favourable contrast to any plan which necessitates that the processes of decomposition shall be allowed to proceed unchecked for an indefinite period. This merit of the destructor is, however, in a sense the main drawback to its popularity. The old system enjoys the great advantage that it quickly removes all cause of offence from general view, and few persons trouble themselves about the railway siding or the canal wharf or the shoot in the country. The destructor, if it is to establish the claim that it deals with the refuse from the outset, must be situated near inhabited houses, and its chimney cannot fail to excite attention. Again, if the destructor causes nuisance, it will mainly affect those living at a considerable distance from it, and thus it excites the opposition, not of the inhabitants of houses in the poorer districts, which presumably exist in the neighbourhood of the depot, but of the richer and much more critical population living halfa-mile or a mile away. It thus happens that while few complaints are received concerning crude forms of furnace with short chimney shafts such as are found in many dust yards and are used sometimes merely for burning paper, sometimes for dealing with vegetable refuse and ordinary house dust, considerable objection is taken to much more perfect appliances provided with lofty chimney shafts. We have already intimated that in our opinion in the case of such destructors as are now in use at Kidacre-street (Leeds) and at Oldham there can be no reasonable complaint of nuisance provided due care is exercised, but we regard it as a matter of great importance that the fact should be recognised that not every appliance which is dignified with the name of Destructor is equally efficacious. We have seen not a few so-called Destructors which must inevitably be productive of nuisance. Under Sec. 22, sub-sec. 2, of the Public Health London Act, 1891, the London County Council is constituted the sanitary authority for the purposes of the Act with respect to any nuisance arising on premises used by a sanitary authority for the treatment or disposal of any street or house refuse. In the event of nuisance being complained of it would be incumbent on the sanitary authority to 6 show that the best practicable means for abating nuisance or preventing or counteracting the effluvia had been adopted. It appears to be desirable, having regard to the fact that the use of destructors promises to become considerably extended in London, that every effort should be made to secure the adoption of appliances of a satisfactory character. We would suggest that it is most important that the Council while encouraging the development indicated, should lend no support to the establishment of any but the best types of furnace. Care and discrimination exercised at this stage will materially reduce the possibility of nuisance, and of consequent intervention on the part of the Council in the future. We have already intimated that, as regards the best available means of prevent ing nuisance from destructors, the following points demand special attention— 1. The temperature attained should be sufficiently high. 2. The duration of exposure to a high temperature should be sufficiently long. 3. All the vapour escaping from the refuse should be heated to a sufficient extent, and there should be no possibility of the escape of any undecomposed vapours into the chimney shaft. In conclusion, we would remark that every appliance should be intelligently and carefullv worked, in order to obtain the full advantage of good design and construction, and under these conditions we think that destruction of refuse by fire may be effected with success and without the production of nuisance. Alex. R. Binnie, Chief Engineer. Shirley F. Murphy, Medical Officer of Health. t 7 APPENDIX I. PARTICULARS RELATING TO DUST DISPOSAL FOR THE YEAR 1892, LONDON SANITARY DISTRICTS. Name of district or parish. Number of inhabitants at middle of 1892. Quantity of dust collected per year, in How disposed of, i.e., burnt or otherwise. Kind of furnace used, date when built, and quantity consumed per cell in 24 hours. Is a cremator used, and, if so, what is the cost of working it? Balance sheet for one year, exclusive of capital account, showing cost of collection and disposal separately. Tons. Cubic yards. Collection. Disposal. Total. Battersea 157,000 25,000 50,000 Burnt Fryer; 1888; 7 tons Not used £ 4,184 £ 3,338 £ 7,522 Bermondsey 84,688 7,061 14,661 Barged away ... ... 1,866 966 2,832 Bethnal-green 129,134 26,091 ... Contract ... ... ... ... ... Camberwell 235,312 30,940 ... By barges, rail and shoots in parish ... ... 4,832 3,340 8,172 Chelsea 96,000 301,384 day pop. 37,000 night pop. 65,567 23,180 48,126 Barged away ... ... ... ... ... City 27,682 73,575 loads Part burnt and barged Fryer; 1884 ... ... ... ... Clerkenwell 16,916 ... To brickmakers; paper burnt. Furnace for burning paper; 1880 No ... ... ... Fulham 96,000 22,984 38,308 Barged away and shoots ... ... 2,873 1,836 4,709 St. George, Hanover-square not given not given not given Contract ... ... ... ... ... St. George-in-the-East 45,546 11,751 ... Contract ... ... ... ... ... St. George-the-Martyr not given not given ... ... ... ... ... ... ... St. Giles-in-the-Fields 39,778 11,263 ... Contract ... ... ... ... 3,800 Greenwich—Greenwich Parish 57,244 21,824 45,310 By barge mostly ... ... ... ... 4,214 „ St. Paul's, Deptford Parish 108,088 31,831 55,088 ... ... 6,650 „ St. Nicholas, Deptford „ 6,828 2,300 4,776 ... ... 513 Hackney 233,837 46,250 96,024 By contractor on vacant land Barged away ... ... ... ... 10,071 Hammersmith 99,819 21,967 ... ... ... 3,265 2,442 5,707 Hampstead 70,000 19,668 ... Burnt Fryer; 1888; 6 tons, 8 cells Yes; worked with breeze 4,937 1,626 6,563 Holborn 33,248 8,578 ... By contract ... ... ... ... ... Islington 320,000 56,691 ... ... ... ... ... ... 23,107 Kensington not given not given ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Lambeth 275,202 29,347 60,930 Barged away ... ... ... ... 14,147 Lewisham and Penge 92,647 24,557 50,986 Shot on shoots ... ... 3,210 78 3,288 Limehouse not given not given ... By contract ... ... ... ... ... St. Luke's 42,411 29,246 ... Sent away in barges ... ... ... ... ... St. Marylebone 142,381 5,780 12,000 By contractor ... ... ... ... ... 8 APPENDIX I.—continued. LONDON SANITARY DISTRICTS. Name of parish or town. Number of inhabitants at middle of 1892. Quantity of dust collected per ton, in How disposed of, i.e., burnt or otherwise. Kind of furnace used, date when built, and quantity consumed per cell in 24 hours. Is a cremator used, and, if so, what is the cost of working it ? Balance sheet for one year, exclusive of capital account, showing cost of collection and disposal separately. Tons. Cubic yards. Collection. Disp???l. Total. £ £ £ Mile-end Old-town 108,000 21,577 39,957 Part burned and part sold 1881; two in 1891, 6 tons each ... 2,184 1,660 3,844 Paddington 117,838 36,860 88,077 Sifted, sorted and sold ... ... ... ... 2,819 St. Paneras 234,437 78,000 195,000 Sent in country ... ... ... ... 13,198 Plumstead—Charlton Pariah not given 4,517 9,482 On shoot ... ... 375 25 400 „ Lee and Kidbrook Parishes 23,560 4,817 10,000 For agricultural purposes ... ... ... ... 1,350 „ Plumstead Parish 54,350 12,022 24,960 By shoots in vicinity ... ... ... ... ... Poplar 166,697 32,517 67,512 By contract ... ... ... ... 7,873 Rotherhithe 39,075 10,081 ... By contract ... ... ... ... ... Shoreditch 124,000 22,000 ... By barge and rail ... ... ... ... ... St. Saviour 28,622 7,384 ... By contract ... ... ... ... ... St. Olave 12,694 5,273 10,948 Barged to Kent ... ... ... ... ... Strand 25,107 16,500 (about) 44,827 Barged away ... ... ... ... ... Wandsworth—Clapham Parish 45,000 7,740 19,000 Sent to Sevenoaks ... ... 1,444 1,056 2,500 „ Streatham „ 45,000 7,283 15,750 Carted out of parish ... ... ... ... 1,265 „ Tooting „ 6,000 1,548 ... Carted on vacant land ... ... ... ... 149 „ Putney „ 18,500 5,466 9,110 By contract to shoots in parish ... ... ... ... 520 ,, Wandsworth „ 49,000 10,530 21,450 Carted outside parish ... ... ... ... 957 Westminster (St. James) 24,993 6,448 10,399 van loads By contract ... ... ... ... ... „ (St Margaret and St. John). 55,760 15,414 32,022 Barged away ... ... ... ... 1,542 St. Martir.-in-the-Fields 14,574 5,881 22,590 Barged away ... ... ... ... 3,106 Whitechapel 74,462 21,900 ... Part burnt Fryer; 1876; 8 tons ... ... ... ... ... Woolwich 40,848 7,514 15,600 Burnt Fryer; 1892 , Yes ... ... ... 0 APPENDIX II. PARTICULARS RELATING TO DUST DISPOSAL FOR THE YEAR 1892. PROVINCIAL SANITARY DISTRICTS IN WHICH DUST DESTRUCTORS ARE IN USE. Name of parish or town. Number of inhabitants at middle of 1892. Quantity of dust collected per year, in How disposed of, i.e., burnt or otherwise. Kind of furnace used, date when built, and quantity consumed per cell in 24 hours. Is a cremator used, and, if so, what is the cost of working it ? Balance sheet for one year, exclusive of capital account, showing cost of collection and disposal separately. Tons. Cubic yards. Collection. Disposal. Total. Aston Manor 70,000 23,000 ... ½ burnt; ½ farmers Fryer; 1892; 8 cells; 6 tons Yes; Jones £ ... £ ... £ ... Birmingham 483,526 184,550 ... ⅛ sent away to tips in boats; ⅓ burnt; ½ to farmers Fryer; 1877; 37 cells at work; 10 in construction; 6'6 tons per cell No ... ... ... Blackburn 121,000 45,500 ... ¼ burnt; ¾ shoots, &c. Fryer; 1891; 8 cells, 6 tons Yes 8,600 107 8,707 Blackpool Winter 24,500 Summer 70,000 12,000 ... Burnt Fryer; 1890; 8 cells Yes 1,706 580 2,286 Bolton 115,002 64,001 ... ⅓ burnt; rest sold and tipped Fryer; 1881; 8 cells No 10,844 1,665 12,509 Bournemouth 37,781 16,250 ... Burnt and shoot Fryer; 1887; Warner; 5 tons Yes; not used, too small; cost £300 Bradford 220,000 59,247 ... Burnt Fryer; 6½ tons Yes; £1,234 9,000 4,000 13,000 Bristol ... ... ... ... Fryer; 1892; 16 cells; only just finished Yes; Jones ... ... ... Burslem 32,000 9,800 ... 2/3 burnt; ⅓ to shoots Fryer; 1890 Yes; no cost 949 242 1,191 Burton-upon-Trent 47,000 - ... Part burnt Fryer; 1891; 4 cells, 6 tons Yes; Jones ... ... ... Bury 57,500 33,985 ... Night soil and offal burnt; 7,000 tons about; rest tipped Fryer; 1880; 4 cells, 6½ tons No ... ... About 7,000 Buxton Residents 7,500; in 4,000 ... Burnt Fryer; 1886; 18 tons ... 256 100 356 Cheltenham season 16,000 42,914 18,704 ... Burnt Fryer; 1892; 8 cells, 4 tons Yes ... ... ... Derby 95,000 15,000 ... Burnt Fryer; 1882; 10cells, 8 tons per day ... ... ... ... Ealing 25,000 8,994 ... Burnt Fryer; 7 cells; 6 tons Yes; erected 1885; £3 per week ... 253 ... Eastbourne 36,000 11,240 ... Burnt Fryer; 1891; 9 tons Yes 2,063 513 2,576 Edinburgh 264,787 111,000 ... Shoots and to farmers Erecting Fryer's Erecting Jones's ... ... ... Eltham 6,000 ... 2,000 Agricultural ... ... ... ... 150 Glasgow 669,059 186,500 ... To farmers and cremated Furnaces; no date Yes ... ... 88,474 Govan 63,000 15,000 ... Hitherto tipped Warner; 1892; 6 cells; not worked yet No ... ... 1,400 10 APPENDIX II.—continued. PROVINCIAL SANITARY DISTRICTS IN WHICH DUST DESTRUCTORS ARE IN USE. Name of parish or town. Number of inhabitants at middle of 1892. Quantity of dust collected per year, in How disposed of, i.e., burnt or otherwise. Kind of furnace used, date when built, and quantity consumed per cell in 24 hours. Is a cremator used, and, if so, what is the cost of working it ? Balance sheet for one year, exclusive of capital account, showing cost of collection and disposal separately. Tons. Cubic yards. Collection. Disposal. Total. £ £ £ Hastings 57,000 15,500 ... ¾ burnt Fryer; 1889; 4 cells, 10 tons Jones 2,654 156 2,810 Heckmondwike 10,000 2,020 3,120 Burnt Fryer; 1879; 3 cells No. ... ... ... Hornsey 46,000 8,010 ... Burnt Warner; 1889; 35 tons Jones; £800 267 320 587 Huddersfield 96,599 34,000 60,000 ½ burnt; ½ to tips Fryer; 1891; 10 cells, 6 tons; erecting others Yes; £180 ... 267 ... Hull 204,000 ... about 25,000 Burnt Fryer; 1882; 6 cells, 7 tons Not used 7,323 269 7,592 Hyde 32,000 ... ... ... Erecting Warner's; 4 cells In course of erection ... ... ... Leeds 369,099 128,000 ... ... 3 destructors; 1876; 14 cells ... 12,800 4,900 17,700 Leicester 180,000 47,000 ... ⅓ burnt; ⅔ to shoots Fryer; 1890; 6 cells, 9 tons; now adding 12 cells Yes 5,288 2,154 7,424 Liverpool 513,790 198,643 ... ⅛ burnt; 3/4 sent to sea; ⅛ farmers Fryer; 1891; 12 cells, 8 tons; erecting 12 cells more Yes; Jones; £256 ... ... ... Longton 34,327 10,300 ... 3/4 burnt; rest to shoots Fryer; 1888; 4 cells, 6 tons Yes; refuse is burnt, so costs next to nothing 515 309 824 Manchester 505,000 68,000 ... Burnt Several furnaces; £280 Several, but use 2 ... ... ... Nelson 25,000 7,700 ... Tipped Richmond and Co.; 3 cells for offal; no date Yes; £3 per week 1,692 173 1,865 Newcastle 192,205 144,000 ... Part burnt; manure, &c. Fryer; 1886; 6 cells, 7 tons; Warner; 1891; 6 cells, 7 tons No 18,600 20,021 38,621 Nottingham 215,000 133,006 loads 1/16 burnt; rest used on land Fryer; 1880; 5 cells, 7 tons per cell in 12 hours No ... ... ... Oldham 136,469 40,000 ... ¼ burnt; ¾ to tips Horsfall; 1891; 7 tons ... ... ... ... Preston 109,038 25,000 33,000 Burnt Fryer; 1885; 4¼ tons In course of erection ... ... 10,139 Richmond 23,000 6,185 4,948 Contract Bee-hive (not used); 2 cells; 1884 ... ... ... 1,008 Rotherham 43,000 14,400 ... ¾ burnt; ¼ to farmers Fryer; 1892; 6 cells, 5½ tons Yes; 21s. per week ... ... ... Royton 13,400 ... .. Erecting Warner's Erecting Jones's ... ... ... Salford 201,058 97,557 ... 1/3 burnt; 2/3 manure Fryer; 1888; 18 cells, 7 tons ... ... ... 29,633 Southampton 65,325 20,000 50,000 Part burnt, part sold Fryer; 1885; 6 cells, 9 tons No 2,025 251 2,276 Warrington 43,000 13,000 ... Burnt Fryer; 1882; 6 cells; 1887 ... ... ... ... West Derby 39,041 37,000 ... Tipped Erecting Fryer's Erecting Jones's ... ... 1,095 Winchester, City of 20,000 2,350 loads Burnt Fryer; 1885; 1 cell Warner; 1892; 1 cell No ... ... ... York 67,000 5,500 ... Tipped Erecting Warner's; 6 cells. 11 APPENDIX III. Abstract of replies received from Medical Officers of Health in reply to questions as to complaints of nuisance caused by Dust Destructors. District in which Destructor is situated. If complaints have been received as to nuisance (offensive smell or dust) from inhabitants of houses in the vicinity of the site of the Destructor. If complaints have been received that dust and smoke from the chimney interfere with any trade or manufacturing process carried on in the neighbourhood of the Destructor. If complaints have been received at anytime, but are not now forthcoming, whether the improvement is attributed to any particular alteration adopted in the method of burning the refuse. General character of the neighbourhood in which the Destructor in situated, and especially if there are inhabited houses in the vicinity. Remarks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Batley Yes, frequent No It is stated that with efficient working of Jones cremator, similar to the one ill use, no offensive smell can be emitted. Inhabited houses on hills all round. Battersea No No ... The destructor is erected on low-lying ground with high ground in the immediate vicinity. Lavender Hill, Clapham-common, &c. It is closely surrounded by working class habitations. The absence of complaint is .attributed to the careful firing of the furnaces, which are charged alternately. Fume cremators form part of plant, but are never lighted or used. Birmingham No No ... Manufacturing and artizan class, with inhabited houses in the immediate vicinity. Blackburn No No Complaints were frequent concerning the old destructor, which had no cremator. Since the present 8-celled destructor was built with a Jones cremator there have been no complaints. Houses within a distance of about 70 yards. Blackpool Yes; not so much from inhabitants as from owners of property. The Medical Officer of Health detects a smell at times. No. The only manufacturing process carried on in the neighbourhood of the destructor is that of gasmaking. Previous to the erection of present destructor there were numerous complaints. The improvement is attributable to the fact that two Jones cremators form part of the existing plant. It is suggested that the use of dust catchpits would diminish the amount of the dust.which constitutes the bulk of the visible fumes at present. The destructor is situated in the most central part of the borough, and close to railway and gas works. To the east aro open fields, to the west (about 1,000 feet) is the Promenade with large houses, let out in apartments. To the north (about 1,000 feet) are some artizans' dwellings, and to the south a number of scattered villa residences, from which quarter most complaints are received. The destructor has only been in use a little over two years. Great alterations are contemplated, as the Jones cremators in use do not give satisfaction. Medical Officer of Health considers it important that a destructor should be so constructed that the unburnt refuse is not heated before combustion. 12 13 APPENDIX III.—continued. District in which Destructor is situated. If complaints have been received as to nuisance (offensive smell or dust) from inhabitants of house3 in the vicinity of the site of the Destructor. If complaints have been received that dust and smoke from the chimney interfere with any trade or manufacturing process carried on in the neighbourhood of the Destructor. If complaints have been received at any time, but are not now forthcoming, whether the improvement is attributed to any particular alteration adopted in the method of burning the refuse. General character of the neighbourhood in which the Destructor is situated, and especially if there are inhabited houses in the vicinity. Remarks. 1. 2. 1. 4. 5. 6. Bolton Yes, but not many. Recent inquiries in neighbourhood showed that very few residents considered the place offensive. No The complaints were made at a time when it was proposed to erect another destructor in a distant part of the town, and were probably prompted by the opponents of that scheme. No alteration has been made in the method of burning the refuse. The rateable value of the houses in the neighbourhood varies from £6 10s. to £14. Some of the houses in the vicinity are separated from the corporation premises by a boundary wall only, and others are not more than a few yards distant. Bournemouth No No ... The neighbourhood of the destructor is a rapidly improving one. Villa residences up to £50 and £70 rent are being built and occupied within 100 yards of the destructor. There is a fume cremator in connection with the destructor, but it is too small for the work, and has not been used daily in consequence of the expense-£300 per annum. Bradford Yes, formerly, as to smells; none as to dust Not aware of any Disappearance of smells attributed to adoption of fume cremator. There are four destructors, two of which are situated amongst mills and factories, and the other two ou the outskirts of the borough in a thinly populated district. Bristol Yes, one only ... Manufacturing neighbourhood with very few dwelling houses in its vicinity. Destructor has been at work only two months, and experience in method of burning is of but short duration. Broughton (Lincoln) No information given. Barslem No No ... Open countyr, no houses within 300 yards. Barton-on-Trent Yes, one only No Careful attention is given to furnace cremator, which no doubt improves matters. Thickly populated on three sides; the nearest group of houses being about 160 yards away. Cheltenham No No. The chimney stack is a tall one, and from the nature of the material burnt it is unlikely that very dense smoke would be emitted. ... The destructor is on the outskirts of the town, and there are only a few small houses in the immediate vicinity. The land near by is devoted to market gardening and fruit culture. Derby Yes, residents at some distance complain of offensive smell. Yes; from farmer occupying land adjoining, of partially charred paper from chimney. No recent complaints as to smell, as alteration has been made in method of working the fire and paper has been interrupted by a grid fixed in the main flue. The destructor is practically in the country, only one dwelling house being nearer than about 400 yards. Ealing Destructor built in 1883 (two cells), and complaints made of offensive smell, dust and smoke. No trade or manufacturing process carried on in the neighbourhood. Destructor increased to four cells and in 1885 a fume cremator invented by Surveyor (Mr. C. Jones). Not one single complaint has been made since. Purely residential, and within 500 yards are properties of various degrees of value. Residences from £25 to £250 per annum. Destructor has now seven cells burns all house refuse and sewage sludge. Eastbourne Yes; as to dust, from proprietor of a vinery built against boundary wall of yard in which destructor is situate. ... ... The destructor is well away (200 to 300 yards) from human habitations, except such as are occupied by the men in charge of the apparatus. The Medical Officer of Health suggests to prevent nuisance:—Careful supervision, and that the updraught be not unduly forced. Glasgow Yes, as to smell and charred paper in 1881, when works first opened. ... Complaints stopped by improved methods. New works have a shaft 300 ft. high. There arc three Destructors, each situated in thinly inhabited districts, but dwellings are quite close to each. Only the rougher rubbish destroyed, the cinders are used to raise steam, and fine ash is mixed with night soil for manure. Govan (Destruct or in course of erection). Hampstead Yes, as to fumes by Hammersmith Vestry in 1890. No No Destructor is situated on banks of Grand Junction Canal with inhabited houses in the vicinity. Hastings A few complaints have been received of dust and of smell issuing from the destructor, but none recently. No. There is little trade in the neighbourhood. No complaints during the last eighteen months ; the improvement probably due to the fumes being passed through a cremator. The destructor is to the extreme east of the "Fishing Village," a poor neighbourhood, occupied mainly by fisher-folk. The cliff (an open grass covered plateau or common) is to the north and the sea to the south. The Medical Officer of Health states that he has stood at the top of the cliff, right in the smoke issuing from the shaft, and detected nothing that could be considered a nuisance. Hcckmondwike No information given. No ... The neighbourhood is of a residential character and the destructor is erected near the centre of the district; within a radius of half a mile there are many houses practically on a level with the top of the shaft. Hcrnsey No Buddersfield No, as to smell or dust. Yes, as to charred paper. No Nuisance complained of obviated by application of steam jets with the precaution of depositing the lightest refuse in those cells which are farthest from the chimney shaft Chiefly residential. Not very densely populated (houses with a rental of £15 to £30 per year within 100 yards). Hull No No ... Manufacturing district, inhabited chiefly by artizans. Hyde (Destructor 111 course of erection) Leeds Yes; the destructor at Armley-road is accused of emitting a great deal of dust from chimney which is short. The one in Beckett-street (the oldest) is said by the medical officer of the workhouse to be offensive at times No complaints from residents recently. No com plaints from new one at Kidac re-street. No At Beckett-street, steam jets have been added which greatly increase the temperature and render nuisance from products of combustion nil. Armley-road — Immediate surroundings, manufacturing; houses nearly all round within a quarter of a mile. Beckett-street—Open land to the north-east, recently, erected working men's houses to the west, artizans cottages (closely packed) and workhouse to south-west. Kidacre-street—Gasworks and large amount of cottage property and two main thoroughfares near. 14 15 APPENDIX III .—continued. District in which Destructor is situated. If complaints have been received as to nuisance (offensive smell or dust) from inhabitants of houses in the vicinity of the site of the Destructor. If complaints have been received that dust and smoke from the chimney interfere with any trade or manufacturing process carried on in the neighbourhood of the Destructor. If complaints have been received at any time, but are not now forthcoming. whether the improvement is attributed to any particular alteration adopted in the method of burning the refuse. General character of the neighbourhood iu which the Destructor is situated, and especially if there are inhabited houses iu the vicinity. Remarks. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Leicester Yes, a few No Yes; mechanical stokers used. Working class neighbourhood. Inhabited houses close up to it. Liverpool No No ... ... More cells are being constructed, so that a larger quantity of refuse may be destroyed. Longton No No ... To the south-west of destructor are several streets of artizans' houses, and to the east, the gasworks. Manchester A few complaints hare been made, but not serious ones. No Have received no complaints very lately. Perhaps the greater care now taken in conducting operations accounts for absence of complaint at present time. The destructors are situated in the immediate neighbourhood of dwelling-houses. Nelson (Lanes.) Yes; numerous complaints as to smells. No ... On one side a number of inhabited houses, on the other a foundry and weaving shed. It is intended to remove the destructor to the sewage works, where it will be at a considerable distance from inhabited houses. Newcastle-on-Tyne On one or two occasions only and long ago when meat in large quantity was destroyed. No No The destructor is placed on highly elevated ground and has numerous dwellings close by. Nottingham Yes, in the past No Very few complaints are nowreceived. Improvement attributed to use of improved blast and more careful feeding of the cells. Inhabited houses (densely populated neighbourhood) and main G.N.R. station within 300 yards. Oldham No No No complaints at any time Destructor is situated in a central and populous part of the town; nearest block of houses about 30 yards distant from it. Preston Yes, as to smell and light unconsumed articles escaping from chimney of destructor first erected. No, as to new destructor. No ... One destructor is situated to the north of the town, having a large public park on one side and good class cottages and middle class houses on the other sides, but a considerable distance away. The second is on low ground, near river, to west of town; also some distance from houses. It has a very lofty chimney. Rotherham Complaints of slight smells occasionally. No Complaints have not entirely ceased. There is a cremator, but it has not as yet been fully at work. Nearest house 200 yards distant The cremator is only worked in the day time, and an attempt is made to utilise fuel obtained from the refuse for burning in it. Complaints of nuisance have not entirely ceased, and the employment of pure breeze in the cremator is contemplated. Royton (Lanes.) ... (Destructor in course of erection.) Salford No No ... There are two destructors, and both are in the immediate vicinity of inhabited houses. Southampton No No ... A poor, thickly-populated district inhabited by dock labouring classes. Warrington Yes, as to smell No Yes, improved system of firing. No mechanical alteration. Rural; the nearest group of houses (within the borough) is 570 yards from destructor. West Derby ... (Destructor in course of erection.) Whitechapel No complaint of smell or dust, but it is stated that ash falls from the top of the chimney in still weather. No ... The neighbourhood consists of inhabited houses. Winchester No No trade or manufacture carried on in the vicinity. ... The destructor is situated to the south of the city adjoining the Main Sewage Pumping Station. There are only two or three houses in its neighbourhood, but the locality is much frequented in fine weather. Woolwich No, except as to partially burnt paper. No ... Wharf property—no houses A screen is about to be constructed in the main flue to prevent the escape of paper. Whileys Destructor Leeds Corporation. Kidacre Street Destructor. Scale, 4 Feet to an Inch. [7024 BOROUGH OF KINGSTON-UPON-THAMES. REFUSE DESTRUCTOR. REPORTS BY THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR, THE BOROTJGR SURVEYOR, THE MEDICAL OFFICER OF HEALTH AND THE BOROUGH ELECTRICAL ENGINEER. REPORT by Dr. W. E. St. L. FINNY, Mayor of Kingston-upon-'Thames. REFUSE DESTRUCTORS At the request of the Sanitary Committee I have visited the refuse destructors in use in Cambridge, Sheffield, Southampton, Leyton, Tooting, and St. Luke's, Camberwell. I had previously visited the destructor at Torquay, and have taken means of obtaining information on the subject of the methods of disposal of refuse as generally adopted in England. A process of cremation of the refuse in one of the recognised " dust destructors " is the almost universal custom in large towns, and as the result of numerous experiments there are now obtainable dust destructors constructed by several different makers, each of which is capable of treating the refuse in a thoroughly satisfactory manner ; and this is borne out by the statements of the managers of the destructors at work in the towns I visited, each of whom considered the destructor he was working with to be the best obtainable. There is a certain satisfaction in learning that though the question of the disposal of house refuse in Kingston is an anxious one to the Sanitary Committee, yet we are by no means the first who have found it so, for in Lucian's "Ancient Rome, in the Light of Recent Discoveries," we read that there is a pillar in ancient Rome bearing the inscription, " Take your refuse further, or you'll be fined." It is pleasing to the antiquary to reflect that because there were no "dust destructors " in those days our museums now contain numerous vases, coins, and other interesting articles which have been recovered from the ashpits of the Roman towns which formerly existed in this country. In considering which of the modern dust destructors are most suitable for the requirements of Kingston-upon-Thames, it is desirable to understand what is the quantity and quality of the refuse to be treated, and then to consider what are the capabilities, details of construction and working, and also the cost of erecting and working a dust destructor. The quality and the quantity of refuse varies considerably with the locality from which it is collected, and with the seasons of the year, but as an estimate Kingston has to get rid of about 21 tons a day (six working days to a week), roughly 500 tons a month, 6,000 tons a year, and this from a population of 34,500, an acrenge of about 1,114 acres, a net rateable value of £170,165, gives about 3½ cwt. per head. According to the London County Council's repert the refuse in London County averages 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum. The average for the whole kingdom is ¼ to ½ ton per head per annum, or 200—250 tons per 1,000 population per annum. Mr. Codrington estimates that a cubic yard of ordinary refuse weighs 12½ cwt. to 15 cwt. and that "a load" of refuse weighs 15 cwt. to 1½ tons. It varies, however, considerably, for in Leeds and Oldham 40 cubic feet go to a ton, while in Edinburgh 80 cubic feet go to a ton. The labour entailed depends move upon the bulk than upon the weight. The quality of refuse varies also, owing to a variety of circumstances, but the following analysis is given by Mr. J. Russell as the average of the London ashbin, which may be taken as fairly representative of Kingston also : Per Cent, by Weight. Breeze, cinder and ashes 63.6 Fine dust 19.5 Organic matter, paper, straw 12.0 Bottles, bones, tins, crockery (about) 50 2 The obtainable calorific value of this refuse as compared with coal is generally stated to be 1-10th, but in Birmingham and Cambridge by a special arrangement of the boiler it is l-5th. As the primary object generally speaking is the complete oxidation of the organic matter in the refuse, and the combustion of the gases given off, it is found impracticable to place the boilers in the best position for receiving the heat from the furnaces, as they would be in an ordinary engine with a coal fire. (The old tins sell at 2/- per ton, and in Manchester are used for making oxide of iron paint.) The same general plan is made use of in all the modern destructors that I have seen, the differences being rather in detail than in principle. The objects being :— 1. To expose the refuse to sufficient heat for a sufficiently long time to render it innocuous by destroying all organic matter. 2. To expose the gases given off to a still greater heat, to render them innocuous. 3. To make use of the products of combustion. 4. To avoid nuisance in working. 5. To do the work economically. The general plan of a dust destructor is as follows: The carts of refuse, which are fitted with covers, are led up an inclined plane, the average gradient being 1 in 20, to a covered in tipping platform about 20 ft. high, making the roadway leading to it about 300 ft., but natural elevations are often taken advantage of, to save collar work in carting. The refuse is received on the tipping platform during the day of about eight working hours ; sufficient being deposited to feed the furnaces for twenty-four hours, but no prolonged storage of refuse is allowed to take place. From the tipping platform the refuse is placed in the cells in regular charges, without the addition of any fuel, the cells or furnaces are arranged either in rows or back to back, and have an inclination of about one in three from back to front, the raised upper end forming a fire brick hearth, upon which the refuse is received, the front being fitted with fire bars and furnace doors. The refuse having been placed on the hearth, where it is partially dried, is drawn down by workmen by rakes on to the furnace on the firebars, and the clinkering is also done from the front. The cells are usually worked in pairs, and the charging of the furnaces with fresh refuse is so alternated that the " green gases " from the one furnace come in contact with the flames from the alternate cell, which is then at its fiercest heat, and in a combustion chamber beyond, a constant temperature of 1800°F. to 2000°F. is maintained, a temperature of not less than 1250 F. being required to oxidise the gaseous products of combustion from the furnaces; the hot flames are then conducted to the boiler, which is of the water tube type, and afterwards to a tall chimney in which the temperature averages 300°F. The fumes from the chimuey should be quite inoffensive. These high temperatures are obtained by means of a forced draught or by steam jets. Without a forced draught the average temperature in the furnaces is 750°F., giving about 6-horse power per cell in winter, and about 3-horse per cell in summer. But with a forced draught, or with steam jets, a temperature of 2000°F. is maintained in the furnaces and in the combustion chamber, and 30 or more horse power per cell obtained from the boilers, generally speaking, one pound of water being evaporated per pound of refuse, and 20 lb. of water so evaporated being equivalent to one horse power. From this it will be seen that without a forced draught the high temperatures required to oxidise the "green gases" cannot be obtained, and this was the chief source of nuisance in the older forms of destructors, a prolonged exposure to a low temperature not being equivalent to incandesence in a high temperature furnace. And, ton for ton consumed, the cost of working a high temperature destructor is no more than working a slow combustion destructor. The average cost of constructing and working a destructor may now be considered. Though influenced by numerous circumstances, the following figures are given:— The average cost of constructing a destructor per cell (without site) £840 The average annual cost of working per cell £96 The average cost of destruction per ton £11½d. The average labour per cell 1.17 men. The average work done (8 hours shifts) 8 tons per man. The average wages for stokers 80s. per week. The average population dealt with 10,000 to 1 cell. The average refuse dealt with, 24 hours 5 tons per cell. (Beaman and Deas, 20 tons per cell). The average height of chimney 168 feet. The average cost of chimney to erect £6 3s. 4d. per ft. The average time of leaving refuse in fire 1¼ hours. The average refuse contains: 1/3 water (by weight), 1/3 combustibles, 1/3 incombustibles. 8 At Kingston-upon-Thames the primary object of a destructor should be to render refuse innocuous by an innocuous method. It is therefore essential that the destructor selected shall be capable of subjecting the refuse and the gases to a sufficiently high temperature for a sufficiently long time, and that no nuisance shall arise from the building, or from the emanations from the chimney top. After these essentials have been fulfilled, use may be made of the products of combustion, to generate steam, or to utilise the clinker, fine ash and flue dust, but this use must be only secondary to the complete destruction of refuse. The first and most essential requirement, the complete oxidation of the refuse and of the gases, is obtained by the high temperature maintained by the forced draught, or by steam jets. In contrasting the forced draught by fan with the steam jets, I believe in Kingston that the fan would be preferable, as it could be used to extract the more or less offensive air from over the tipping platform, and further because its working would not use as much steam as the steam jets, the use of steam jets would prevent the use of the fan for removing the offensive air. Mr. Watson, m.i.c.e., estimates that the amount of steam required for the steam jets is about 5½ horse power compared with 1 horse power to drive the fan. The arrangement of the furnace cells may be, as already stated, either back to back or in rows; experience shows that though equally good work can be done with either arrangement, the single row cell plan has certain practical advantages in being more open for inspection, cleaning and repairs. The working expenses of a destructor can be considerably reduced by making use of the products of combustion, which are heat, clinker, fine ash and flue dust. The heat is used to generate steam, watertube boilers being usually adopted, and though the power varies with the quality of the refuse, 60 or more horse power per pair of cells is obtainable. This power may be used : To drive fans for forced draught. To supply steam jets. To grind mortar and clinker. To pump water or sewage. To aid electric lighting. To aid electric traction. The heat also provides for the Borough a valuable means of safely destroying infected bedding, condemned provisions, carcases of diseased animals, &c. The clinker can be made use of in many ways. It is quite innocuous and could be used to fill up gravel pits, or tipped into Maiden ponds without fear of causing a nuisance. The clinker averages ¼ in bulk, l-3rd in weight, of the original refuse dealt with. It is frequently when ground, mixed with lime for mortar, clay for bricks, or placed under sets as a bed for pavements. (Clinker mortar sells for about 5/- per ton). It is also used for filter beds for the bacterial process of treating sewage. Clinker may be used for making road bottoms, or broken and mixed with cement (one part of cement to three of broken clinker) to form concrete, which is then shaped into paving stones. These stones have a disagreeable dull colour, but this has been rectified by washing the surface, after the slabs have been laid, with a strong mixture of cement and water, which it is stated " takes some time to wear off." Their appearance has also been altered by forming a mosaic pattern by the mixture of pieces of broken china, etc. The sizes of these slabs are usually 2ft. by 2ft., and 3ft. by 2ft., being 2½ inches thick. The total cost of production is about 1s. 73/4d. per square yard ; they take from six to nine months to set after removing from the mould, they are then very hard. In Southampton after twelve years wear, in busy streets, the slabs showed not more than -8th inch wear, and experiments have shown that the breaking weight of slabs made of cement and clinker is much higher than of slabs made of cement and the best Thames sand. The Kingston Corporation are at present paying 5/4 per square yard to the Imperial Stone Paving Co.; this includes the price of the stone and the cost of labour. At Bristol the sides and bottom of one of the Corporation baths have been lined with a mixture of cement, clinker and chalk, " forming a clean, bright, and impervious lining ; easily cleaned." Steps, flags, window sills, pillar blocks, etc., have also been made of this mixture. The Fine Ash. This is mostly collected from below the furnace bars; it is estimated that 3½ cwt. of fine ash result from 100 tons of refuse. It is used for mixing with clay for garden and for brick making purposes ; at Leyton it sells at 1/6 per load. Flue Dust is of a peculiar fine, sharp character. Sir Douglas Fox in his report estimates that 18 grains are contained in a cubic foot of air in the combustion chamber; as 5,000 to 6,000 cubic feet of air pass from the chimney top per minute, this would amount to about three cart loads per week poured into the air, if arrangements were not made for catching it in "dust catchers," and in the flues; three cartloads a week is about the average which is caught, and it has a distinct commercial value. In Leyton it sells at 4s. per cart load, and is sold for making 4 pointing mortar. In Bath for 5s. per ton. In Sheffield it is mixed with one gallon of carbolic acid to 901bs. of flue dust, and sold at £2 5s. per ton delivered (resembling the usual 15 per cent, disinfecting powder), costing 33s. to 34s. per ton to produce. Flue Dust is also sold for filling in the double walls of fireproof safes. Of the destructors I have seen, those by Horsfall Company, Messrs. Beaman and Deas, and the Warner Perfectus, are equally capable of doing Kingston's work thoroughly, and I believe any of these makers would be willing to guarantee against any action for damages arising from nuisances caused by smoke, smell or dust. I suggest that these three be requested to tender for supplying a plant capable of dealing with 25 tons of refuse per day, fitted with forced draught by fan, a combustion chamber, dust catcher chamber, water tube boiler, chimney and usual accessories, and that the question of erecting a disinfecting chamber for clothing be also considered. A crematorium for the dead has not yet, I believe, been worked in connection with a destructor. A properly constructed destructor if properly managed is not injurious to health, and may be placed quite close to dwelling houses without causing a nuisance. At Leyton, the infectious diseases hospital is placed alongside the destructor, and the authorities report that not only is there no nuisance from smells and dust, but that the nuisance which formerly existed has been done away with since the erection of the destructor. The question of nuisance in the working of a destructor must be carefully considered. It is now the opinion of disinterested experts that "at the present time there is no reason whatever why a destructor, properly designed and managed, should be a source of the slightest nuisance." [Mr. W. H. Maxwell.] There is, however, considerable prejudice against dust destructors, as formerly, before the principles of their construction were thoroughly mastered, they gained for themselves a bad name. A nuisance may arise in wrorking : 1. From the refuse in the tipping shed. 2. From fumes and dust from cooling clinkers. 3. From offensive vapours from the chimney. 4. From dust from the chimney. (1). Is met with by roofing in the the tipping shed completely, by arranging the furnace so as to draw off the offensive air and dust, and by preventing any accumulation of refuse ; everything combustible being burnt within a few hours of its collection. (2). When the clinkers are cooled by hoseing them with water, dense clouds of steam, sulphurretted hydrogen and dust are given off. These are offensive and no doubt injurious to plant life—to avoid nuisance a cooling chamber has been adopted; others open the furnace doors and the draught draws up all the offensive vapour. (3). Offensive vapours from the chimney top arise when the temperature in the furnace or combustion chambers has not been sufficiently high to oxidise the empyreumatic vapours. The forced draught has done away with this nuisance. The main flue must have a large sectional area so that the heat and fumes may travel slowly. (4.) Dust from the chimney top may cause a serious nuisance; it is of a peculiar sharp light character, and has a specific gravity of 1.98, road dust being s.g. 2.43, water being 1.00. Flue dust being about 20 per cent. lighter than road dust, is carried by the wind to greater distances, and when deposited adheres firmly to clothing and plants owing to its fine sharp nature. The introduction of a "dust catcher" between the boiler and the flue (that is, a peculiarly constructed chamber in which the dust deposits) arrests the dust, which is drawn off at intervals and sold. From information obtained it is estimated that it would cost Kingston-upon-Thames about £4,000 to erect a destructor capable of dealing with its refuse, and that it could be worked at an annual cost of £300 to £400, employing 5 workmen and a foreman. Considerable saving could be effected by the manufacture of paving slabs from the clinker, and if the destructor were placed on the Oil Mill Lane land advantage could be taken of it to light and heat the Isolation hospital when it is built. In conclusion we have to contrast the above system of dealing with refuse and its cost, with the other methods of refuse disposal and their cost. They are : 1. Giving or selling it to brickmakers. 2. Tipping upon waste land. 3. Sorting and selling the ingredients. 5 Disposal to brickmakers is the method at present adopted, the refuse being sent by railway, and it costs about £35 a month or £420 a year to do so. It is uncertain how long this arrangement can last, and the brickmaker requires that what is sent shall be freed from certain forms of trade refuse which have to be otherwise dealt with. Tipping upon waste land has been very effectively carried out in Kingston, and excellent pleasure gardens formed beside the river, but this system must be condemned when there is any probability of the area so filled up being built upon. Mr. Maxwell in his excellent work on the subject points out that this is a frequent cause of infantile diarrhoea, no less than 209 deaths per 1,000 occurring in one town as the result. The additiou of lime to the refuse appears to hasten the process of decay, all the vegetable and animal matter disappearing in about three years. The sorting and selling the ingredients, when possible, has only to be mentioned to be condemned as degrading and injurious to the health of the sorters, and as likely to cause a nuisance by collecting and storing offensive material. July 13, 1899. W. E. St. L. FINNY. BOROUGH SURVEYOR'S REPORT. REFUSE DESTRUCTOR. In dealing with this subject, with reference to Kingston, it is hardly necessary to point out that the term " Refuse Destructor " is somewhat of a misnomer, as it is only a portion of the material, and the unsanitary character of the whole, that undergoes destruction, leaving the remainder either to be removed in the condition in which it leaves the furnaces, or, on the other hand, utilising it in manufacturing it into suitable productions of value and usefulness. I mention this point first, as it appears to me that before coming to any conclusion as to the comparative value of the various destructors erected in many parts of the country it is necessary for the Corporation to decide the exact use or uses to which they desire to put a destructor, and also the site proposed to be appropriated for the purpose, as I consider one or both of these points may Materially influence the selection of the special plant best to be adopted. If the leading idea of a destructor is the raising of auxiliary steam for the Sewage or Electric Light Works or for producing the electric requirements for the Tramways or Light Railway Works, then the position is at once determined to be at or near the site of those works, and the destructor which generates the greatest amount of heat from the refuse burnt would seem to be the best for the purpose, without special reference to the clinkering of the residue left and drawn from the cells. If, however, it is desired to turn such residue to a useful purpose, the clinkering is of special importance, as, when it is in that state it is capable of being turned to the most useful account, and for such purpose I should suggest that under any circumstances sufficient steam should and could be raised to work any necessary plant such as grinding and mortar mills, etc. In the recent visits to various places where destructors have been established, I have taken note of the uses to which the clinkered material has been put, and I certainly think that the manufacture of artificial paving is the best that has come under my notice, and that such paving may be made more attractive in appearance, if desired, by having all the broken pottery, white and all colours, picked out of the refuse before it is put through the destructor, broken up very small and mixed and embedded on the surface of the artificial flags when they are being made, the result being to present an agreeable mosaic appearance ; this, I believe, has been done at Southampton. It appears to me that this part of the work could be made to meet the present desire of the Highway Committee to have all the unpaved footpaths in the Borough laid with artificial paving, and would for a long time take up and satisfactorily use all the suitable material produced when this work was accomplished; or if it were not undertaken I would suggest the making of concrete blocks of a lower quality than the paving. These blocks could be used by builders for the foundations of walls of new buildings, and might be, say, 2ft. 6in. long by 1ft. 8in. wide by 6in. deep. These blocks laid lengthways, two courses in height and breaking joint would form a 12in. foundation for 9in. brick walls, in accordance with the bye-laws, and if laid crosswise in the trench would in a similar manner form a foundation for 14in. walls. Other blocks of suitable size, say 4½in. thick, might be made with a key on the edge, enabling them to be used for internal walls in the place of 4½in. brick. There are other similar uses to which this clinker concrete might be applied, and the remaining material not so used would be available and very suitable for raising any low ground, such as portions of the land near Oil Mill Lane, and no possible objection could be made to the material if the land were afterwards used for temporary or permanent hospital purposes. When the uses required from a destructor have been settled it will be necessary to adopt what appears to be the best make suited for the purpose, and it seems to me to be most important, in making such selection, that a destructor should not only be well designed and constructed, but that no expense should be spared in providing internally such arrangements and materials as will secure the permanency of the work under the very destructive influence of the intense heat required to make the work done thoroughly effective. Without making any 6 remarks detrimental to other makers, I feel bound to say that I consider the destructor provided by the Horsfall Syndicate is in all respects fitted to satisfactorily supply the requirements of this Borough. It has the forced draught, which is found to be of great advantage, and up to the end of last year, when I made enquiry, I found that none of the Horsfall destructors had been replaced by those of other firms. This company will also guarantee with their complete plant that no dust, smoke or smell shall escape from the cells of the destructor. Lord Kelvin and Professor Burr, of Glasgow University, with others, report very highly upon this destructor. Under these circumstances I do not think I can add anything further with advantage to the points of importance mentioned in the above report. June 7th, 1899. HENRY MACAULAY, Borough Surveyor. REPORT OF MEDICAL OFFICER OF HEALTH. REFUSE DESTRUCTORS. I have visited Refuse Destructors at Devonport, Torquay, Leyton, Shoreditch, Hampstead, Tooting, Hornsey, Rath, Bristol, Cambridge, and Sheffield. With the exception of Devonport these destructors are very similar in construction. The refuse is tipped on the top of the furnaces from the carts, and worked down into the chambers by the workmen as the different furnaces require feeding. This causes the accumulation of a mass of refuse which may be highly objectionable. To obviate this Boulnois and Brophy carriers have been adopted in some places in connection with the Manlove-Alliott destructors. The refuse is tipped into these carriers, which are divided into compartments each containing one charge for the furnaces, which is discharged by a simple mechanism, and a large amount of nuisance caused by the disturbance and moving of the refuse is avoided. An improved method of charging the furnaces is being devised at Tooting (Beaman and Deas). Should this prove successful, as appears probable, this form of destructor will be one of the most cleanly. These destructors work with a forced draught, and I should add that the work must be very trying to the men employed. Nuisance may arise from the cooling of the clinker. This is in some places done by pouring water over it whilst hot, evolving clouds of steam. In some of Manlove's destructors a cooling chamber has been devised, which is a great improvement. In the Beaman and Deas the clinker when withdrawn from the furnace is cooled by water, and the draught carries the steam up through the furnaces, so that all nuisance is avoided. In most cases there is considerable nuisance from dust, but this may be avoided by careful arrangement of the buildings. At Tooting* Cambridge and Torquay, considerable expense has been incurred in inclosing the works and by arranging fans for extracting the foul air and dust, and conveying it into the chimney shaft. At Bath it was found that great complaints were made by persons living in the higher parts of the town, that dust from the top of the chimney was deposited in their neighbourhoods. This is a contingency it will be desirable to guard against in the choice of a site for a destructor, and it may be mentioned that the nearest high ground to Down Hall meadows is over one mile away, and that with the south-west winds any dust would be carried to places devoid of houses. It is contended by those who devise or manage destructors that no dust is given off from the chimney shaft, but I believe that the complaint usually arises when there is residential property on high ground within a mile of the shaft. The destructor at Devonport (Willoughby Syndicate) is a new departure, and has many advantages over the others I have seen. It occupies a very small space of ground. The refuse is tipped on to a perfectly smooth turn table, where there is no place for it to lodge and accumulate. This turn table is readily moved, so that the load is brought opposite the charging hole, into which it is shovelled by the attendant. In this charging hole a steam ram works which presses the refuse into the furnace. This furnace consists of a steel tube on a slight incline that is constantly revolving. It is lined with fire brick, and is fed with coke at a cost of 6d. a day. The heat passes over a tubular boiler that works all the machinery and gives plenty of steam to spare. The temperature in the tube is over 2000°, and the one cell is capable of dealing with 50 tons of refuse a day. The clinker falls into a pit from the lower part of the tube as it revolves, when it is cooled, and is then elevated into a sifter and discharged in two heaps, fine and coarse. This is the best clinker that I have seen, and is said to have a good market value. There is absence of nuisance from accumulation of refuse, from dust, and from cooling in this machine, and I hope the Committee will consider its advantages carefully before finally deciding on the pattern to be adopted by the Corporation. With regard to the other machines, Beaman and Deas, Manlove, Horsfall, and Warner, there appears to be little choice as far as avoidance of nuisance is concerned, this being more a matter of|the arrangement of the buildings, the methods of working, and the auxiliaries, all of which add to the cost, which in no case should be more than some sum between 1s. 6d. and 2s. per ton of refuse, inclusive of buildings and cost of working. I should, however, place them as above in order of merit as regards the requirements of this town. H. BEALE COLLINS. June, 1899. 7 ADVISING ENGINEER'S REPORT. REFUSE DESTRUCTORS. I have carefully considered the information which I have been able to obtain from the destructors visited with a view to reporting upon the engineering points in their construction and maintenance, and more particularly with regard to the utilization of the steam which can be generated from the waste heat in the process of combustion, and I am of opinion that with a destructor combined with water-tube boilers, so arranged as to obtain the greatest efficiency, a considerable amount of power may be obtained from the burning of refuse. The heating capacity of refuse varies largely in different districts, but I think that of Kingston may be considered an average class of refuse, and fairly suitable for steam raising. In my opinion, however, the facilities for generating electricity in any quantity from refuse has been largely exaggerated, and probably the best use to which the power can be turned is in the direction of driving machinery for working crushing and mixing mills, and generating electricity for lighting the destructor house and any adjoining buildings, and where the Sewage Works adjoin the destructor house the power can be used to advantage in driving the sewage pumps. It is evident that a destructor with the necessary storage for and ultimate disposal of the clinkers and the necessary outbuildings will require an area of about one acre, and after making a careful survey it appears that it is not possible to obtain this amount of ground in the immediate neighbourhood of the Electricity and Sewage Works. Again I think it is exceedingly inadvisable to place a destructor, with the large amount of dust which must necessarily arise, both from the refuse in its raw state and from the clinker and fine ash in its burnt state, in proximity to the Electricity Works, where a number of high speed engines are installed, as in course of time the bearings, both of the engines and of the electrical machines, must suffer greatly from the wear and tear caused by fine particles of grit, and this notwithstanding that the greatest care is exercised. If the destructor were placed at some considerable distance, say at the extreme end of Down Hall Meadows, sufficient power might be generated to operate the pumps and machinery at the Sewage Works by means of direct current motors, connected by cables to a small installation of direct current dynamos placed in an engine house adjoining the destructor; although there would again be the objection of placing these engines in proximity to the destructor. On the other hand it would not be practicable to convey steam for such a distance as from the destructor in this position to the Sewage Works. The loss by condensation and radiation would be too great. At Cambridge the plant has been working from two to three years, and the engines do not appear to have suffered from their close proximity to the destructor. These pumping engines are slow speed engines, and every precaution has been taken to exclude dust from the engine house. The Parsons Steam Turbine which drives the lighting Dynamo runs at 3000 revolutions per minute, but the bearings of this class of engine are of a special enclosed type, and the engine has been working such a short time that it is not possible to judge whether even these bearings are in any way affected. I have come therefore to the conclusion that it would not be advisable to place the destructor upon any portion of Down Hall Meadows, the many drawbacks considerably outbalancing the few advantages ; and it would therefore be necessary to select another site. Of the various types, that most suited in my opinion to the wants of this district is a similar destructor to that installed at Cambridge, namely, a Manlove-Alliott, fitted with patent charging trucks and cooling chambers. The dust, which is collected in covered four wheel tip wagons, is discharged direct into the charging trucks, each of which is divided into several compartments, each compartment holding one charge of refuse. These compartments are fitted with moveable bottoms, to allow of the refuse being shot into the furnace, when each compartment in turn is placed over the furnace opening. With these arrangements there is an utter absence of smell, dust and litter at the spot where the furnaces are charged. The objection which was made to these trucks owing to the breaking of the endless chains is one merely of mechanical design and would be quite obviated by the use of a better and heavier class of chain. The cooling chamber is a most advantageous feature of this destructor, as it does away with the necessity of pouring cold water on the hot clinker, and causing clouds of steam and dust to rise, and it seems to me that in such a district as ours too much care cannot be exercised in preventing smell and dust even at the cost of a few pence extra per ton for destroying the refuse. 8 In making this selection I would point out that I have drawn my conclusions only from those destructors that I have seen at Hornsey, St. Luke's, Leyton, Southampton, Portswood, Cambridge, and Sheffield, as I was unable to visit Devonport, Torquay, and Bath, and the data in the table I have appended, relating to the three latter towns, have been obtained from information supplied by the Chairman of the Committee. In conjunction with the destructor, water tube boilers should be installed, and the steam generated used for driving crushing and mixing mills, for the working of clinker for paving, and for generating electricity for lighting the buildings; the provision of a battery of accumulators would provide a supply of current on Sundays and at other times when refuse was not being burnt. The surplus clinker and fine ash could be sold, as there is demand for such in the neighbourhood, or the clinker could be stored for use in the making up of filter beds, which will probably be required at some future date. J. E. EDGCOME, M.I.M.E. June, 1899. Advising Engineer to the Sanitary and Drainage Committee. APPENDIX TO ADVISING ENGINEER'S REPORT. REFUSE DESTRUCTORS. Town Population (Dust dealt with) Size of site. Type of Destructor. No of Years Working. Percentage Residue. COST. No. of Cells Capacity of Cells per 24 hrs. Tons. Height of Shaft Temperature of Hue. No. of Boilers. Steam Pressure. Total Horse Power Cost per ton of burning. REMARKS. Land. Machinery Buildings. Destructor Buildings. Cells. Chimney Shaft. Machine!" HORNSEY 70,000 ... Goddard & Co. 8 25%. ... ... £4,200 12 6 217 feet 800 1 25 lbs. 20 1/3 This low temperature destructor does not give such thorough combustion as the higher temperature ones, and for this reason could not lie recommended. No c omplaint has been received during the last four years. Waterworks with reservoirs practically adjoin this site, which is in the High Street, with a number of houses in close proximity. Paving is made from the ground clinker, in proportion of one of cement to two of ground clinker ; costs 2s. 6d to 3s. per yard laid ; the paving is even in texture, gives good foothold and is pleasing in colour. One man can make sixty to seventy slabs, 3ft. Oin. by 2ft. Oin. per day. The Workmen's Dwellings were built with mortar made with ground clinker. The steam generated is used for driving grinding machines, mixing mills and hydraulic presses. £1 ,700 HAMPSTEAD 75,500 1 Acre Manlove Alliott 11 30% £2,460 £2,080 ... ... ... ... 8 6 120 feet ... None ... ... 1/1 This destructor is fixed in the area of \Villesden District Council and not in Hampstead. Four cells were fixed in 1888, two added in 1890 and 1891. Ashes sold at 2s. per load, clinker given away. Paving is made in proportion of one of cement to two of ground clinker ; some paving has been in use eight years without repairs being necessary. The destructor so satisfactory that the same type would be selected if extensions are required. A crematorium is fitted for burning the fumes before passing to the shaft, crematorium being fed with coke breeze. No use is made of steam generated, the paving being hand made. ST. LUKE S 45,000 ... Horsfall ... 30% ... £5,000 ... £2,000 6 20 180 feet 2,000° 1 140 lbs. A Goddard, Massey & Warner destructor was put up, but owing to alterations in construction being made, against the wishes of the patentees, the destructor was not satisfactory, and was replaced by the present Horsfall, which at the time of our visit was not completed. The information given is based upon the terms of the contract and not upon actual results. It is proposed to utilise the steam generated for lighting the destructor works, and probably some adjoining works, with electricity. LEYTON 100,000 1 Acre Beaman & Das 1 30% ... £6,000 8 16.5 150 feet 2,000 3 110 lbs. 90 1/2 Dust is collected from houses in 90 miles of streets. The destructor is built in connection with the Sewage Works, and burns sewage sludge in proportion of one of sludge to two of house refuse ; considerable smell arises where the destructor is fed, owing to the presence of sewage sludge. It was worked by the contractors under a six months' contract on the understanding that it should be taken over if satisfactory, and it has since been taken over by the District Council. Steam generated drives the machinery at Sewage Works, formerly driven by steam raised from coal; saving in coal stated to be £350 per annum ; £150 per annum is obtained by sale of clinker at 6d., and fine ash at 1s. 6d. per load. DEVONPORT ... ... Willoughby Syndicate ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 50 Short (temporary). This destructor is of special type, containing revolving steel tube lined with fire brick, fitted with feeding ram and arrangement for cooling clinker. Fire is fed with coke at a cost of Od. per day. Three hands are employed to work destructor during 24 hours. TORQUAY ... ... Goddard & Co. 8 months ... ... £1,700 £4,200 4 8 150 feet -/9½ A small electric installation was added at a cost of £400. BATH 50,000 ... Goddard & Co. 4 years ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5 ... ... ... ... ... -/10 Disinfector is worked in conjunction with destructor. Profit from sale of products during last year £450 ; paving sold at 3s. 3d. per square yard, clinker at 6d. per load, ashes at 2s. 6d. ; 1800 yards of paving and channelling now being made for one of principal streets. SOUTHAMPTON (Town) 40,000 ... Goddard & Co. Manlove Alliott ... 20% ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7.5 160' 4½" 1,500° 3 150 150 ... Destructor worked in conjunction with sewage works. Steam generated used for pumping sewage from deep well, a lift of 10 feet and discharging it into an arm of Southampton water. Steam is also used for driving machinery for pressing sludge and for lighting the destructor house, pump house and engine house and adjoining Corporation stables. SOUTHAMPTON (Portswood) 10,000 ... Goddard & Co. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3 ... ... ... 1 ... 30 ... Small 3 cell destructor by Goddard & Co., deals with dust from population of 10,000 and pumps sewage from population of 5,000 in St. Denys district. Clinker is used for construction of filter beds laid down at sewage works. CAMBRIDGE 50,000 ... Manlove Alliott 3 25% £1,900 £2,132 £1,200 £5,777 £1,600 £5,324 6 5 175 feet 2,000° 3 160 1/3 Four of the six cells only used at one time ; fitted with Boulnois & Brodie's charging trucks ; cooling chamber fitted to cool clinker before being drawn out; the 3 water tube boilers have extra furnaces to allow of coal firing on Sundays when dust is not collected ; 260 tons coal used per annum ; steam generated drives sewage pumps, lifting sewage from deep wells, and discharges same on sewage farm two miles from destructor house ; total lift of 43 feet. Pumps deal with 2,000.000 gallons per 24 hours and have dealt with 4,000,000gallons psr day ; clinker stored for making up filter beds which it is proposed to use. SHEFFIELD 60,000 ... Goddard & Co. ... 25% ... ... ... ... ... ... 6 10 188 feet 1,500° 1 80 20 -/8 Coarse ash portion of refuse from ash closets burnt with refuse, and smell from this combined refuse is,very offensive. Cells are fitted with patent dampers to allow of each cell when being clinkered and charged to be cut off from the main flue ; destructor built on outskirts of Sheffield a considerable distance from any houses ; a further 10 cells of same type and a mattress chamber are being erected, also cottages for use of destructor start. Machinery for making paving will be laid down. Disinfectant powder is made by mixing fine ash from the flue with disinfectants, which makes very good powder at about half usual cost. • •